Biofuel co-products as livestock feed - Opportunities and challenges

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Potential and constraints in utilizing co-products of the non-edible oils-based biodiesel industry – an overview 333a spent meal free from the anti nutritional factors (Saxenaet al., 2010).Protein extraction is another procedure to obtain pureprotein isolates for use as animal feed and additives. Themethod consists of protein solubilization in alkaline solutionfollowed by protein precipitation by acid at the iso-electricpH (Saetae and Suntornsuk, 2011). Usman et al. (2005)isolated proteins from azadirachta meal using 0.5 M NaClat pH 7.5.Physical treatmentsPhysical treatments lead to denaturation of the active toxiccompounds and include thermal treatments (autoclaving,moist heat and microwave) (Liu, Steg and Hindle, 1993).Dry heating was effective in the de-allergenization of alkalitreatedricinus meal at 205 °C for 95 minutes (Gardner etal., 1960). Cooking ricinus meal for 10 minutes destroyedits ricin content (Barnes, Baldwin and Braasch, 2009).Steam cooking of crambe meal reduced its content ofepi-progoitrin by 30 percent, but increased the toxic nitrilecontent and decreased the level of available lysine (Liu, Stegand Hindle, 1993).Biochemical treatmentsBiochemical detoxification treatments are based on enzymicand fermentative reactions. Trypsin (6 percent by weightof the meal) digestion of ricinus meal resulted in a completede-allergenization of the treated meal (Gardner etal., 1960). The binding properties of tannins were used byGhandi, Cherian and Mulky (1994). In their work, the toxicfactor of the castor cake was neutralized by the tanninspresent in sal (Shorea robusta) seed meal.Fermenting rubber cake and meal with the mycelium ofthe edible mushroom Pleurotus tuberregium for 96 hoursat room temperature resulted in a decrease of its total cyanogenscontent from 500 to 5 ppm for the cake and from300 to 4 ppm for the meal. The treatment resulted additionallyin an increase in CP content from 29 to 39 percent(Ukpebor et al., 2007).A study realized by Hundsdoerfer et al. (2005) indicatedthat the larvae of Hyles euphorbiae could metabolize syntheticphorbol esters (12-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate)either injected or fed. Phorbol esters occur in different speciesof the Euphorbiaceae, e.g. croton and jatropha.EFFECTS OF FEEDING TREATED NON-EDIBLECAKES OR MEALS ON ANIMAL RESPONSE ANDPERFORMANCEThe usefulness of treated non-edible oil cakes and meals asanimal feed depends on the efficiency and economic viabilityof detoxification methods and the possibility of usingthe treated co-products. The results of the feeding trialsconducted on laboratory and farm animals after appropriatedetoxification treatments of the non-edible cakes andmeals are summarized in Table 4. Some of the detoxificationattempts have shown promising results, and, at lowlevels of their inclusion in diets, many can be adopted withoutadverse effects on animal welfare and performance.Although many treatments are promising, the challenge liesin developing cost-effective and simple processes that canbe adopted by farmers.KNOWLEDGE GAPS AND FUTURE RESEARCHNEEDSStudies on the possible use of co-products of the biofuelindustry based on non-edible oils for animal feeding showthat a lot still needs to be done. Main knowledge gaps are: The nature of some toxic compounds in these co-productsis unknown. The current methodologies for analysingmany of the toxic and anti nutritional factors needimprovement. For developing an effective detoxificationprocess, it is necessary to define the chemical nature ofthe toxic compound(s) and their mode of action. Thisinformation is not available for many of the co-products. There is a need to further improve the detoxificationprocesses for Thevetia peruviana, Hevea brasiliensis, Calophylluminopyllum, Mesua ferrea and Croton tiglium.Studies on the utilization of the detoxified material byvarious farm animal species should also be conducted. Scaling up is needed for promising detoxification processes.The implementation of positive results can besuccessful only if large amounts of the co-products canbe treated and used for animal feeding. The development, use and scaling up of the detoxificationprocesses should be accompanied by socioeconomicanalysis. Preparation of high-value protein isolates and peptidesfor use in livestock feeds could be an alternativeapproach for use of otherwise non-edible cakes andmeals, an approach that so far has received little attention.Processing for preparation of protein isolates andpeptides could eliminate the toxic and anti nutritionalfactors. Future work is warranted on this topic.CONCLUSIONSTo make the biofuel industry more profitable and sustainable,use of the co-products-derived cakes and meals, generallyrich in protein is of utmost importance. Detoxificationhas been successful for some of these products: Ricinus communis meal cooked at 100 °C for 50 minutescould be considered for addition at up to 15 percentin chick diets. The addition of lime at 4 percent wasalso promising when fed at up to 10 and 15 percent inthe diet of sheep and beef cattle, respectively. Hevea brasiliensis meal soaked in water and left to ferment,or meal obtained from originally soaked seeds,
334Biofuel co-products as livestock feed – Opportunities and challengescontains less HCN (reduced from 120 to 2.6 mg/kg DMafter one month of storage). However feeding trials onfarm animals need to be conducted to confirm the safetyof feeding. Heat-carbonate-treated dehulled-meal from Crambeabyssinica has been shown to have acceptable palatabilityand can replace up to two-thirds of soybean meal inthe supplement for beef cattle. Water washing, methanol extraction, urea and alkalitreatments of Azadirachta indica meal gave promisingresults when fed to farm animals. Water-washed neemcake could be fed at up to 45 percent of concentratefor calves. Water-washed Pongamia pinnata meal can be incorporatedat up to 13.5 percent of the concentrate in lambdiet. Alkali treatment was also effective.BIBLIOGRAPHYAbdullah, B.M. & Salimon, J. 2009. Physicochemicalcharacteristics of Malaysian rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) seedoil. European Journal of Scientific Research, 31: 437–445.Agrawal, D.K., Garg, A.K. & Nath, K. 1987. The use ofwater-washed neem (Azadirachta indica) seed kernel cake inthe feeding of buffalo calves. Journal of Agricultural Science,108: 497–499.Ajayi, I.A., Oderinde, R.A., Taiwo, V.O. & Agbedana, E.O.2008. Short-term toxicological evaluation of Terminaliacatappa, Pentaclethra macrophylla and Calophylluminophyllum seed oils in rats. Food Chemistry, 106: 458–465.Alexander, J., Benford, D., Cockburn, A., Cravedi, J.,Dogliotti, E., Di Domenico, A., Férnandez-Cruz, M.L.,Fürst, P., Fink-Gremmels, F., Galli, C.L., Grandjean, P., Gzyl,J., Heinemeyer, G., Johansson, N., Mutti, A., Schlatter, J.,Van Leeuwen, R., Van Peteghem, C. & Verger, P. 2008a.Scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants in the foodchain on a request from the European Commission on ricin(from Ricinus communis) as undesirable substances in animalfeed. European Food Safety Authority Journal, 726: 1–38.Alexander, G., Singh, B., Sahoo, A. & Bhat, T.K. 2008b. Invitro screening of plant extracts to enhance the efficiency ofutilization of energy and nitrogen in ruminant diets. AnimalFeed Science and Technology, 145: 229–244.Anandan, S., Sastry, V.R.B., Katiyar, R.C. & Agrawal, D.K.1999. Processed neem kernel meal as a substitute forpeanut meal protein in growing goat diets. Small RuminantResearch, 32: 125–128.Ani, A.O. & Okorie, A.U. 2009. Response of broiler finishersto diets containing graded levels of processed castoroil bean (Ricinus communis L) meal. Journal of AnimalPhysiology and Animal Nutrition, 93: 157–164.Atteh, J.O., Ibiyemi, S.A. & Ojo A.O. 1995. Responseof broilers to dietary levels of Thevetia cake. Journal ofAgricultural Science, 125: 307–310.Azam, M.M., Waris, A. & Nahar, N.M. 2005. Prospects andpotential of fatty acid methyl esters of some non-traditionalseed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass and Bioenergy,29: 293–302.Babatunde, G.M., Pond, W.G. & Peo, E.R. Jr. 1990. Nutritivevalue of rubber seed (Hevea brasiliensis) meal: utilization bygrowing pigs of semi-purified diets in which rubber seedmeal partially replaced soybean meal. Journal of AnimalScience, 68: 392–397.Baker, E.C., Mustakas, G.C., Gumbmann M.R. & GouldD.H. 1977. Biological evaluation of crambe meals detoxifiedby water extraction on a continuous filter. Journal of theAmerican Oil Chemists Society, 54: 392–396.Banerjee, K.K. & Sen, A. 1981. Purification and propertiesof a lectin from the seeds of Croton tiglium with hemolyticactivity toward rabbit red cells. Archives of Biochemistry andBiophysics, 212: 740–753.Barnes, D.J., Baldwin, B.S. & Braasch, D.A. 2009.Degradation of ricin in castor seed meal by temperatureand chemical treatment. Industrial Crops and Products,29: 509–515.Baruah, K.K., Kalita, N. & Saikia, S.N. 1997. Feeding valueof decorticated nahar seed meal (Mesua ferrea) in poultryration. Indian Veterinary Journal, 74: 537–538.Ben Salem, H. & Makkar, H.P.S. 2009. Defatted Moringaoleifera seed meal as a feed additive for sheep. Animal FeedScience and Technology, 150: 27–33.Bhushan, B., Rangaswami, S. & Seshadri, T.R. 1975.Calaustralin, a new 4-phenylcoumarin from the seed oil ofCalophyllum inophylum Linn. Indian Journal of Chemistry,13: 746–747.Bisset, N. & Bogor, G. 1962. A preliminary paper on thechromatographic study of the glycosides from T. peruviana.Chemical Abstracts, 60, Abstract 9864.Bosch, C.H. 2004. Moringa oleifera Lam. PROTA Foundation,Backhuys, CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.Brown, L.R. 2009. Plan B 4.0 – Mobilizing to Save Civilization.Earth Policy Insitute. W.W. Norton & Company, New York,USA.Carlson, K.D. & Tookey, H.L. 1983. Crambe meal as a proteinsource for feeds. Journal of the American Oil Chemist’sSociety, 60: 1979–1985.Chapagain, B.P. & Wiesman, Z. 2007. Determination ofsaponins in the kernel cake of Balanites aegyptiaca by HPLC-ESI/MS. Phytochemical Analysis, 18: 354–362.Chaudhary, N.S., Shee, C., Islam, A., Ahmad, F., Yernool,D., Kumar, P. & Sharma, A.K. 2008. Purification andcharacterization of a trypsin inhibitor from Putranjivaroxburghii seeds. Phytochemistry, 69: 2120–2126.Dash, P.K., Sahu, B.K., Dehuri, P.K., Panda, N.C. & Mishra,S.C. 1990. Defatted polanga Calophyllum inophyllum oilcake as feedstuff for broilers. Indian Journal of PoultryScience, 25: 256–260.
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BIOFUEL CO-PRODUCTS AS LIVESTOCK FE
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Recommended citationFAO. 2012. Biof
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vco-products to swine - Feeding cru
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viiCHAPTER 22Use of Pongamia glabra
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ixPrefaceHumans are faced with majo
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10Biofuel co-products as livestock
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35Chapter 3Impact of United States
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Impact of United States biofuels co
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101Chapter 6Hydrogen sulphide: synt
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155Chapter 8Utilization of crude gl
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Utilization of crude glycerin in be
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209Chapter 11Co-products from biofu
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Co-products from biofuel production
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275Chapter 15Sustainable and compet
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Sustainable and competitive use of
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467Chapter 26An assessment of the p
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An assessment of the potential dema
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483Chapter 27Biofuels: their co-pro
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Biofuels: their co-products and wat
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501Chapter 28Utilization of co-prod
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523Contributing authorsSouheila Abb
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Contributing authors 525for the Fee
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Contributing authors 527Friederike
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Contributing authors 529Sustainable
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Contributing authors 531During the
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Contributing authors 533(Hons.) and
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