Biofuel co-products as livestock feed - Opportunities and challenges

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Use of Pongamia glabra (karanj) and Azadirachta indica (neem) seed cakes for feeding livestock 391histopathological changes in the liver at a higher level ofinclusion (16.8 percent w/w) of SKC. Mild degenerativechanges were noticed in the form of cloudy swelling inthe liver of chicks fed a diet containing a mixture of agroindustrialco-products having 63 percent SKC replacing29 percent of a standard diet on an iso nitrogenous basis(Haque et al., 1996). The liver and pancreas of chicksreceiving 2 percent karanj oil and 20 percent EKC in the dietshowed necrosis, fatty changes and disrupted structures(Natanam, Kadirvel and Ravi, 1989). Pathological studiesshowed no remarkable gross changes in vital organs atlower levels of inclusion (i.e. at 20 percent replacement ofred til cake) of SKC (4.45 kg in 100 kg of feed) in the diet ofJapanese quail, but higher levels of inclusion induced minorpathological changes in liver, heart, kidney and lungs (Dharaet al., 1997). Dietary incorporation of either processed orunprocessed karanj cake beyond a 25 percent replacement(6.43 percent in diet) level, except for NaOH-treatedSKC (12.86 percent in diet), resulted in histopathologicalabnormalities and the severity increased with increase inthe level of replacement (Panda et al., 2008). The severityof lesions was comparatively higher in the group fed adiet incorporating 25.72 percent NaOH (2 percent)-treatedEKC. Livers showed hepatic degeneration, with distortion;kidneys showed tubular degeneration with necrotic lesions;spleen cells showed degeneration with necrotic foci anddepletion of lymphocytes; and testes had degenerativechanges of testicular follicles and vaculation. Feeding ofSKC after treatment with either NaOH or Ca(OH) 2 wasfound to be beneficial instead of feeding SKC as such, sinceuntrated SKC induced more severe histopathological lesionsin the vital organs of broiler chickens. Treating SKC with1.5 percent NaOH effectively minimized the toxic effectsof karanjin.The results from different laboratories confirm that EKCas such is unsuitable for poultry feeding. However, afterdetoxification with alkali (2 percent NaOH, w/w) it can beincorporated, but only at a low level (3.24 percent in diet),replacing 6.25 percent of the N moiety of SBM for broilerdiets without adversely affecting performance. However,SKC can be incorporated after alkali (1.5 percent NaOH,w/w) processing at an enhanced level of 6.43 percent inthe diet, replacing 12.5 percent of SBM N, in broiler dietsup to 4-weeks old, beyond which the observed growthdepression on this diet could be alleviated by 0.2 percentmethionine supplementation. Such a diet, by partially substitutingfor the costly and scarce conventional oil cake,can support optimum nutritional performance in broilerchickens. However, further research should be focused ondeveloping improved methods for detoxification to reducethe bitterness and toxic factors in karanj cake, permittingits inclusion at a higher level, making poultry productionmore economic.NEEM SEED CAKENeem oil and other products of the neem tree are usedtraditionally for making cosmetics (soaps, mild detergents,creams, teeth cleansers) and traditional Indian medicines(for skin infections, inflammations, fever, leprosy, malaria,tuberculosis, worm infestation, eczema, etc.), in additionto being a source of anti-bacterial and anti-fungal agentsin bio-manure and plant protection. In 1995, the EuropeanPatent Office granted a patent on neem as an anti-fungalagent to the United States Department of Agricultureand multinational company W.R. Grace, to which theGovernment of India objected, as neem has been used asan anti-microbial agent for more than 2000 years. This wasdecided in favour of India in 2000, but when the multinationalmounted an appeal, it took five more years beforedismissal of the appeal, in March 2005.Distribution of the neem treeNeem or margosa (Azadirachta indica; syn. Melia azadirachtaLinn.) is a fast growing evergreen perennial treewith a height up to 20 m, and belongs to the familyMaliaceae. It is found widely in semi-arid to sub-humidareas of the tropics, but it can thrive well even in warm,dry arid regions having rainfall less than 500 mm annually.Though neem is native to India, it has spread to Pakistan,Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malayasia, Indonesia, Thailand andthe Near East. In Africa, it was introduced by Indian settlersand is abundant in the whole tropical belt from Eastto West Africa. Neem is also reported to occur in the WestIndies Islands and some countries of Central and SouthAmerica (Anon., 1948). Neem can grow in a wide rangeof climatic conditions. Such a wide adaptation and toleranceto varied soil and climatic conditions confirms its highdegree of heterozygosity and potential scope for increasingproduction through selection, if the nutritional worth of itsco-products are proved and found safe for feeding. Indiahas about 25 million neem trees, with an average annualproduction potential of 900 000 tonne of neem seed cake(NSC) as a residue after oil extraction (Singh, 1993).Bitter and toxic neem compoundsNeem seed kernel cake, a protein rich (35–40 percent CP)agro-industrial co-product hitherto utilized as fertilizer-cumpesticide,was found unsuitable for animal feeding due topresence of bitter and toxic triterpenoids (azadirachtin,salanin, nimbin, nimbidiol, etc.). The bitterness of neemis attributed to limonoids, which are the triterpenoids.The pioneer work of Siddiqui (1942) revealed that the bitterprinciples (1.2 percent of dry matter) comprised bothwater- and fat-soluble fractions. The main feature of thesecompounds is that they are mostly tri- or tetra terpenoids.The structure and chemistry of these compounds hasrecently been reviewed by Devakumar and Dev (1993),
392Biofuel co-products as livestock feed – Opportunities and challengesTABLE 13Chemical composition of various type neem cakes (percentage of DM basis)Type of cakeCrudeproteinEtherextractCrude fibre NFE Total ash Ca P SourceNeem seed cake(NSC)12.4–19.6 1.8–3.3 17.9 52.5–64.3 13.9–14.3 1.5 0.4 Bedi, Vijan and Ranjihan, 1975a; Nath,Vijjan and Ranjhan, 1978.Deoiled NSC 17.9–18.4 0.4–3.6 25.9–30.1 35.0–46.2 5.5–16.2 0.7–1.0 0.2–0.6 Christopher, Ahmed and Sastry, 1976;Garg, 1989.Neem seed kernelcake (NSKC)Notes: NFE = nitrogen-free extract.33.5–40.8 7.9–10.4 11.4–23.0 19.6–26.6 12.3–15.0 – – Rajgopal and Nath, 1981; Nath, Rajagopaland Garg, 1983; Reddy, 1992.according to whom these can be classified into severalgroups: protomeliacins; limonoids with modified side chain(e.g. γ-hydroxybutenolides, azadirone and its derivatives);vilasinin-type compounds; and those belonging to 3c-secomeliacins,namely nimbin, solanin and azadirachtin. Thechemical structure of these compounds indicates the presenceof polar and non-polar groups, a property that hasbeen exploited in extraction of these compounds.Chemical compositionThe chemical composition of neem seed cake (NSC)and neem seed kernel cake (NSKC) varies greatly anddepends on many factors. Crude protein and crude fibrecontents of cake are inversely co-related and largely dependupon the type of seeds and method of oil extraction.When decorticated kernels are processed for oil, the cakeobtained has high crude protein and low crude fibre, whilethe undecorticated cake is low in crude protein and highin crude fibre. Cakes obtained from partially de-pulpedand decorticated seeds are intermediate depending uponthe degree of de-pulping and/or decortication of the seeds(Table 13). The mineral composition of NSC, as well asof leaves, fruit and seed (Singhal and Mudgal, 1984) aresummarized in Table 14, together with the amino acidcomposition reported by Singhal and Mudgal (1983) andTewari (1992).Feeding of neem seed cake to ruminantsInitially, Christopher (1970) showed the possibility of usingof NSC as a protein source in cattle feed. Later, several feedingstudies were conducted in the country to determineits palatability, nutritive value and possible use as animalfeed. Studies with calves (Rao and Nath, 1979), buffalobulls (Bedi, Vijan and Ranjihan, 1975a), cross-bred bulls(Ananthasubramanian, Menacherry and Devasia, 1979) andsheep (Gupta and Bhaid, 1980) showed that NSC as suchwas unpalatable, although the water extracts of neem seedcake showed no adverse effect on the hydrolytic enzymesof the rumen (Agarwal et al., 1991) when tested in vitro.Most of the later studies concentrated on improving thepalatability of NSC by feeding it together it with highlypalatable ingredients such as starch, molasses, maize orjaggery [crude sugar from palm sap] (Christopher, 1970).TABLE 14Mineral composition and amino acid profile of neem seedcakeAmino Acid ProfileMineral CompositionAmino acid g/16 g N Mineral ContentAspartic 7.31–8.19 Ca % 0.96Threonine 1.88–3.13 P % 0.30Serine 2.88–3.63 Mg % 0.44Glutamic 15.00–15.13 Na % 0.40Proline 5.25 K % 0.98Glysine 2.44–6.75 Cu, ppm 19Alanine 2.88 Zn, ppm 19Cystine 2.13–10.81 Fe, ppm 2705Valine 3.00–4.75 Co, ppm 1.5Methionine 0.88–4.38 Mn, ppm 70Isoleucine 2.06–3.75 Cr, ppm 1Tyrosine 1.63 Pb, ppm 10.5Phenylalanine 3.88–5.00 Cd, ppm –Histidine 1.00–1.31Lysine 1.75Arginine 3.56–4.56Sources: Adapted from Singhal and Mudgal, 1983, 1984, and Tewari,1992.Urea-ammoniated NSKC was found to be quite palatableto buffalo calves (Reddy, 1992) and kids (Anandan, 1994).Effect of neem seed cake on performance ofruminantsNeem seed cake, when fed as such, besides being unpalatable,is harmful to animals as it adversely affects growth,the male reproductive system, and has at times led to haematuria(Nath, Vijjan and Ranjhan, 1978; Rao and Nath,1979). Various attempts have since been made to detoxifythe cake, making it suitable for feeding ruminants withoptimum growth and better nutrient utilization.Bedi, Vijan and Ranjihan (1975a) observed poor palatability,depressed growth rate and reduced nutrientdigestibility (DM, CP, CF and NFE) in cross-bred calves fedconcentrate mixtures containing 25 and 57 percent NSC.When NSC was substituted at rates of 25 and 50 percentdigestible crude protein (DCP) for GNC in concentrate mixtures,loss of body weight with poor palatability was notedin buffalo calves, and there was significantly depressednutrient digestibility. especially at the higher level of incorporation(Bedi, Vijan and Ranjihan, 1975b), indicating that
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BIOFUEL CO-PRODUCTS AS LIVESTOCK FE
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Recommended citationFAO. 2012. Biof
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vco-products to swine - Feeding cru
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viiCHAPTER 22Use of Pongamia glabra
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ixPrefaceHumans are faced with majo
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xiiCBMCBSCCDSCCKCDOCDSCFCFBCFRCGECI
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xivHCHOHClHCNHisH-JPKMHMCHPDDGHPDDG
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xviPPbPCVPDPEMPFADPhePJPKCPKEPKMPKO
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xviiiWBPWCGFWDGWDGSWDGSHWPCWTWWWNSK
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2Biofuel co-products as livestock f
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10Biofuel co-products as livestock
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35Chapter 3Impact of United States
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Impact of United States biofuels co
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101Chapter 6Hydrogen sulphide: synt
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Hydrogen sulphide in cattle fed co-
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155Chapter 8Utilization of crude gl
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Utilization of crude glycerin in be
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209Chapter 11Co-products from biofu
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Co-products from biofuel production
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275Chapter 15Sustainable and compet
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Sustainable and competitive use of
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291Chapter 16Scope for utilizing su
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Scope for utilizing sugar cane baga
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303Chapter 17Camelina sativa in pou
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Camelina sativa in poultry diets: o
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311Chapter 18Utilization of lipid c
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Utilization of lipid co-products of
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467Chapter 26An assessment of the p
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An assessment of the potential dema
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483Chapter 27Biofuels: their co-pro
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Biofuels: their co-products and wat
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501Chapter 28Utilization of co-prod
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Utilization of co-products of the b
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523Contributing authorsSouheila Abb
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Contributing authors 525for the Fee
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Contributing authors 527Friederike
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Contributing authors 529Sustainable
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Contributing authors 531During the
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Contributing authors 533(Hons.) and
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