Biofuel co-products as livestock feed - Opportunities and challenges

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Utilization of co-products of the biofuel industry as livestock feeds – a synthesis 509FishFish require specific amino acids (AA) rather than crude protein.Although DDGS has a similar AA profile to maize, it isdeficient in lysine (Mjoun and Rosentrater, 23). Differencesbetween species of fish should also be noted. The authorssuggest two ways in which the diet can be balanced, eitherby including DDGS in a cocktail of protein feeds, or by theaddition of synthetic AA. DDGS is rich in vitamins and P, butis low in Ca, Cl and trace minerals. Mjoun and Rosentrater(23) note that cereal feedstocks other than maize are beingused in practise, but currently only DDGS from maize, andhigh protein DDGS (HP-DDGS), also from maize, have beentested for use in aquaculture. The use of barley is limitedbecause of its high content of beta-glucans (Mjoun andRosentrater, 23). Growth, feed utilization and flesh compositionin a number of aquatic organisms, including Nile,hybrid and red tilapia; channel catfish; rainbow trout; yellowperch; common carp; freshwater prawn; Pacific whiteshrimp; reclaw crayfish; and sunshine bass, are summarizedin Table 5 of Chapter 23 (Mjoun and Rosentrater, 23),together with the ingredients replaced by DDGS. Tilapiaand channel catfish require supplementary lysine if DDGSexceeds 30 percent of the diet (Mjoun and Rosentrater,23). Feed efficiency in rainbow trout is reduced if DDGS isincluded in the diet. The other species listed show somepositive results, but more information is needed (Mjounand Rosentrater, 23). In several trials, the flesh containedmore protein and fat when DDGS was fed, but taste wasnot affected. If the protein and fat content of the flesh areunchanged, it could indicate an imbalance in the aminoacid profile of the diet. There are few large-scale trialsreported where DDGS is fed to fish, but there are indicationsthat the digestibility of DDGS is lower than that ofsoybean meal or fishmeal, thus indicating that more of thefeed is excreted into the pond and thereby becoming a possiblesource of pond pollution (Mjoun and Rosentrater, 23).BIODIESELIn 2010, a total of 140 plants produced 1.2 billion litres ofbiodiesel, but relatively little glycerol was used for livestockfeeding, possibly due to its relatively high value elsewherein pharmaceuticals and other industry applications. Onelitre of diesel production is accompanied by 0.08 kg ofglycerine (Shurson, Tilstra and Kerr, 3), although Cooperand Weber (1) indicated a lower figure of 0.04 L of glycerineper litre of biodiesel produced. Stoichiometrically, 1 Lof biodiesel production should result in the production of1 kg of glycerine. Biodiesel production peaked in the USAin 2008 and has since fallen, to the extent that glycerol forlivestock feed could become scarce because of its demandby other sectors (Shurson, Tilstra and Kerr, 3). However, theUSA economy could handle 9.5 billion litres of biodiesel by2015 (Cooper and Weber, 1). Biodiesel production is by oneof three methods, all based on the use of methanol as thealcohol source (low cost and can be recycled) with sodiummethoxide and potassium hydroxide used as catalysts(Cooper and Weber, 1).Algae contain lipids, along with starch and cellulosepresent in cell walls. However, their feeding value, and alsothat of seaweed, is not yet known (Shurson, Tilstra andKerr, 3).Europe is the world leader in biodiesel production fromvegetable oils, although currently rapeseed oil supportedby imported soybean meal is the backbone of the industry(Abbeddou and Makkar, 19). The European need for biodieselto meet inclusion targets in transport fuels by 2020 willdepend on the division between petrol- and diesel-enginedtransport, which in turn will be price related and largelydependent on government support and taxation levels. Ifmore biodiesel is required, this will be provided by rapeseedoil, providing residual rape meal, as well as throughimports of biodiesel or vegetable oils, but the amount ofco-products available for livestock feed will not increasetremendously. If the fuel demand and policy shift is towardneeding more ethanol, then improvements in crop yieldsand cropping of underutilized arable land, together withproduction of livestock co-products of between 23 and35 million tonne per year, would maintain the total arableoutput for food and feed at its current level (Lywood andPinkney, 2).The importance of the oil palm industry to the Malaysianeconomy cannot be understated, with palm oil and palmkernel oil in 2008 representing 30 percent of total globalproduction, from 4.5 million hectare of land (Wan Zahari,Alimon and Wong, 13). Major products include palmoil, oleo-chemicals and biodiesel. In Brazil, two palms ofimportance are the oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, and babassu(Orbignya phalerata), both originally used in food, charcoaland soap production, but now increasingly as a sourceof biodiesel. The residue is available as a low-cost energysource for livestock (de Albuquerque et al., 14).There are other potentially productive sources of biodiesel,but for their residues to contribute fully as livestock feed,detoxification is required. These include Jatropha (Makkar,Kumar and Becker, 21; Anandan, Gowda and Sampath, 20)and castor (Anandan, Gowda and Sampath, 20). The possibilitiesfor detoxification of other potential feed sources isdiscussed by Abbeddou and Makkar (19), Makkar, Kumarand Becker (21) and Dutta, Panda and Kamra (22).Feedstocks used for biodiesel productionIn the USA, soybean is the major feedstock for biodiesel,but in Europe rape is the chief home-grown source of oil(Hippenstiel et al., 11), supplemented with imported soybean,animal fats and yellow grease. However, a numberof ‘non-conventional’ crops and resources have been or
510Biofuel co-products as livestock feed – Opportunities and challengesare being investigated for potential use where they areabundant (Table 3).Camelina sativa, also known as false flax, is an oilseedcrop of the brassica family. For over 2000 years it has beencultivated in Europe for its oil and as a livestock fodder. Itsurvives well on marginal land, needs very few inputs andno irrigation, thereby keeping conflict for scarce resourcesof land, water and fertilizer at a minimum. Because of itsincreasing use as a biofuel feedstock, more information isneeded on the potential role of camelina as a feed ingredient,although there is some evidence of its suitability forruminants. In Chapter 17, Cherian examines its role specificallyas a feed for poultry.Biofuel policy in India is based on the use of non-foodfeedstocks to avoid the possibility of conflict between therequirements of humans, livestock and biofuels targets, andalso to create a tool in rural development to bring marginalland into production (Anandan, Gowda and Sampath, 20).However, the authors consider that the industry is unlikelyto achieve its 2017 target contribution to transport fuelbecause of slow progress in establishing crops such asJatropha (see also Makkar, Kumar and Becker, 21), lowproductivity and poor market infrastructure, compoundedwith competition for the same land by expansion of thesugar cane industry.In Australia, Braid (25) describes the current biofuelsindustry as small (total current capacity 280 million litre peryear), and biodiesel has been produced from tallow andused cooking oil. However, Brassica juncea and Pongamiapinnata are low-rainfall oilseed crops, both with residues(juncea and pongamia meals, respectively) with feed potentialafter detoxification (Braid, 25). Pongamia pinnata is anative species of India and South-east Asia, where the oilis used for cooking and lighting, and along the coast ofTABLE 3Feedstocks used for biodiesel production, their co-products and major areas of utilizationFeedstock Co-product Co-product use by livestockSoybean (3)Rapeseed (11)Vegetable oils (2)Maize oil (27)Camelina sativa (17)Crude glycerine (3, 7, 8, 23); several uses, human foods/pharmaceuticals/commercial, etc. (8)Oil seed cake (mechanically extracted) and meal (solventextracted); methanol should be removed (11)Camelina meal: derives from member of the brassica familythat grows on marginal land, no irrigation needed. Meal isrich in amino acids and antioxidants (17)Pigs (3, 10)Beef cattle (8)Fish (23)Dairy, beef, pigs and poultry (11)Glycerol as drench and supplement fordairy cattle (7)Poultry (broilers and layers) (17)Jatropha (20, 21) Heated J platyphylla kernel meal (21)Detoxified J. curcas kernel meal and detoxified protein isolate(21)Heated kernel meal from non-toxic genotype of J. curcas (21)Fish, turkeys and pigs (21)Oil palm (13, 14)Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) andbabussa (Oribgnya phalerata)(14)Seed oils (18)Rapidly expanding industry with several by-products fromrefining of crude palm oil or palm kernel oil; oil palm fronds,trunks, pressed fibre, empty fruit bunches, kernel cakeand oil mill effluent are products available in the field andex-processing {also solubles}, with aim of integrating livestockindustry with oil palm production (13)Oil palm and babussa oil used for food, charcoal, soap andnow biodiesel (14)Co-products derived during bioethanol and biodieselproduction (18)Ruminant feeding and complete dietsbased on oil palm for poultry, pigs andfreshwater fish (13)Oil palm and babussa feed for collaredpeccary (Pecari tajacu) (14)In livestock feed as feed additives (butalso used in human food and cosmetics)(18)Micro-algae (25, 24) Algal residues left after extraction of oil (24) Fuel, food, feed and chemicals (24)Brassica juncea (25)Pongamia pinnata (25, 19)Pongamia glabra (22)Azadirachta indica (22, 19)Juncea meal (residue after oil extraction, 25)P. pinnata meal (residue after oil extraction, 19, 25)P. glabra meal (Karanj seed cake) – de-oiling needed forcomplete detoxification (22)A. indica (neem seed cake) – water washing reduces toxicity(19, 22)Juncea meal (pigs, 25)P. pinnata meal at low levels as livestockfeed (25) (possible toxicity problems, 19)Karanj and neem seed cakes aftertreatment fed to ruminants and poultry(22)Non-edible oils (19)Ricinus communis (castor) (20)Jatropha (21)Oil cakes and meals; detoxification needed; meals that canbe fed after treatment are R. communis; Hevea brasiliensis(livestock trials needed); Crambe abyssinica; A. indica;P. pinnata (19).Need for industrial and commercial uptake of detoxifyingtechniques for castor (6)With Jatropha, removal of phorbal esters necessary (21)Notes: Numbers in the body of the table denote chapter numbers in this book. For a list, see Appendix 1.Ruminants used where oil cakes andmeals were tested (19)Jatropha requires testing (21)
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BIOFUEL CO-PRODUCTS AS LIVESTOCK FE
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Recommended citationFAO. 2012. Biof
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vco-products to swine - Feeding cru
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viiCHAPTER 22Use of Pongamia glabra
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ixPrefaceHumans are faced with majo
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xiiCBMCBSCCDSCCKCDOCDSCFCFBCFRCGECI
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xivHCHOHClHCNHisH-JPKMHMCHPDDGHPDDG
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xviPPbPCVPDPEMPFADPhePJPKCPKEPKMPKO
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xviiiWBPWCGFWDGWDGSWDGSHWPCWTWWWNSK
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2Biofuel co-products as livestock f
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10Biofuel co-products as livestock
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35Chapter 3Impact of United States
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Impact of United States biofuels co
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101Chapter 6Hydrogen sulphide: synt
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155Chapter 8Utilization of crude gl
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Utilization of crude glycerin in be
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209Chapter 11Co-products from biofu
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275Chapter 15Sustainable and compet
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Sustainable and competitive use of
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291Chapter 16Scope for utilizing su
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303Chapter 17Camelina sativa in pou
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Camelina sativa in poultry diets: o
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311Chapter 18Utilization of lipid c
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351Chapter 21Use of detoxified jatr
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379Chapter 22Use of Pongamia glabra
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403Chapter 23Co-products of the Uni
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Page 477 and 478: 458Biofuel co-products as livestock
Page 486 and 487: 467Chapter 26An assessment of the p
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Page 542 and 543: 523Contributing authorsSouheila Abb
Page 544 and 545: Contributing authors 525for the Fee
Page 546 and 547: Contributing authors 527Friederike
Page 548 and 549: Contributing authors 529Sustainable
Page 550 and 551: Contributing authors 531During the
Page 552: Contributing authors 533(Hons.) and
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