Biofuel co-products as livestock feed - Opportunities and challenges

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Micro-algae for fuel and use of spent biomass for feed and for other uses 427osmo protection in hyper saline to brackish water environments.D. tertiolecta can be exploited for lipid productionas it accumulates neutral lipids up to 50 percent understress conditions, and has high CO 2 absorption capacityand fast growth (Oilgae, 2010). The β-carotene obtainedfrom Dunaliella spp. can be used as natural food colorantand also in enhancing fish flesh colour and egg yolk colour(Becker 2004). Due to the rich content of β-carotene andlipid accumulation they can even be positioned as nutritionalsupplements. The carotenoid-rich fraction is composedof all-trans and the 9-cis isomer of β-carotene, which havehigh anti oxidant activity and are known to prevent someforms of cancer. Carotenoids with their quenching actionon reactive oxygen species have an intrinsic anti-inflammatoryproperty, hence Dunaliella spp. can replace syntheticcarotenoids (Murthy 2005).DIATOMS AS SOURCES OF LIPIDSDiatoms are a class of unicellular micro-algae belonging toBacillariophyceae, and dominant phytoplankton in oceans,contributing up to 25 percent of global primary productivity(Ramachandra, Mahapatra and Karthick, 2009). The diatomsare a rich source of lipids, especially poly unsaturatedfatty acids (Tan and Johns, 1996; Lebeau and Robert, 2003).The lipids are accumulated as oil droplets in marine diatoms,which could be explained as a physiological and biochemicaladaptation providing cell buoyancy compensatingfor the heavy siliceous cell wall, and also as storage materialagainst unfavourable conditions (Ramachandra, Mahapatraand Karthick, 2009). Silicon limitation in media is the majortrigger for lipid accumulation in diatoms. Mysristic acid,palmitic acid and palmito-oleic acid are the dominant fattyacids in diatoms. Mixotrophic and heterotrophic cultivationof diatoms are being exploited for poly unsaturatedfatty acid (PUFA) production. Apart from PUFA production,many diatoms, such as Chaetoceros muelleri, Skeletonemacostatum and Thalsssiosira pseudonana, are used as afeed source in aquaculture in view of their good fatty acidprofiles. The complete genome sequence for two diatoms,Thalassiosira pseudonana and Phaeodactylum tricornutum,are available, and transgenic systems for many diatoms arewell established, like Navicula spp. and Cyclotella spp., providingopportunities to improve lipid productivity by geneticengineering (Dunahay, Jarvis and Roessler., 1995).At present, the production of lipids in general and PUFAin particular by marine and freshwater micro-algae is thesubject of intense research and commercial importance.Some of them are industrially exploited as potential sourcesof eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), such as Nitzschia laevisand Phaeodactylum tricornutum. The annual worldwidedemand for EPA is about 300 tonne, and fish oil is themajor source of PUFAs (Singh, Bhushan and Banerjee,2005.). However, the search for vegetarian sources ofPUFAs and purified micro-algal PUFA as an alternative tofish oil, which is complex to purify and with intense odour,appears promising (Wen and Chen, 2003). Benefits of PUFAsupplementation are well understood. One rare PUFA ofmicro-algal origin is gamma linolenic acid. Gamma linolenicacid (GLA; C18:3) is an isomer of ALA and is present insignificant amounts in Spirulina spp. GLA has been identifiedas contibuting to prevention of skin diseases, diabetesand reproductive disorders (Gunstone, 1992). PUFAs frommicro-algae are incorporated as supplements in infant formulaand nutritional supplements (Table 2).LARGE-SCALE CULTIVATION OF MICRO-ALGAEThe commercial cultivation of micro-algae began with thecultivation of Chlorella in Japan in the 1960s, followed bycultivation of Spirulina in Mexico and United States in the1970s. In the last four decades, the industrial biotechnologyof photo syntheic micro-organisms has grown tremendouslyand diversified. Large-scale cultivation systems of microalgaetakes two main forms: open ponds and closed reactors,reflecting the nature of the organism, culture mediacomposition and other parameters, including culture pH,salinity and cultivation conditions.The main goal of mass cultivation is to achieve higherproductivity in terms of biomass for production of a metabolite.The three important factors affecting the mass cultivationof micro-algae are culture depth and related light levels,mixing or turbulence, and biomass density (Grobbelaar,2009). The economics of large-scale cultivation are dictatedby maximal yields and high rates of production. For industrialproduction systems, the micro-algae are generally grownTABLE 2Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) produced from micro-algaePUFA Application Micro-algal sourceGamma linolenic acid (GLA)C-18:3 – omega 3Arachidonic acid (AA)C-20:4 – omega 6Eicosapentanoic acid (EPA)C-20:5 – omega 3Docosahexanoic acid (DHA)C-20:6 – omega 3Nutritional supplements and infant foodsNutritional supplements, immuno modulatorytherapeuticsNutritional supplements and aquacultureNutritional supplements and Infant foodsSources: Spolaore et al., 2006; Harwood and Guschina, 2009.Spirulina spp.Porphyridium creuntum, Parietochloris spp.Nannochoropsis spp., Phaeodactylum spp., IsochrysispavlovaSchizochytrium spp., Crypthecodinium spp.
428Biofuel co-products as livestock feed – Opportunities and challengesin open outdoor shallow ponds for simple maintenance andrelatively low input costs.Open cultivation systemsMost algae for commercial use are grown in the open air.The two most common open cultivation systems are circularand raceway ponds, in use for more than five decades.These systems can be developed using natural water bodiessuch as lagoons and ponds or artificial ponds such asraceways. Raceway ponds are generally oval shaped, closedloop channels of 0.2–0.5 m in depth where mixing is generallyprovided using paddle wheels. Raceway ponds are usuallyconstructed from cement, or sometimes compacted soilchannels with plastic liner (Brennan and Owende, 2010).Their shallow nature and continuous mixing meets thelight requirements of the culture and prevents sedimentation.The open cultivation pond is cheap and they do notcompete for agricultural land as they can be built on nonproductive(marginal) land, or coastal regions for marinealgal cultivation. The open system requires minimal investmentin terms of light source and operations (Borowitzka,1997; Chisti, 2008; Brennan and Owende, 2010; Mutandaet al., 2011).Open systems such as coastal shallow brackish-waterponds are extensively used for feed production in aquacultureand for other industrial applications. Dunaliella spp.are widely grown in these systems. These natural ponds areeconomical in terms of their operations, but only a limitednumber of species can be grown. Other physico-chemicalparameters that affect productivity in open systems areevaporation losses, temperature fluctuations, inefficientmixing and light limitation. The evaporation losses increasethe ionic concentration in the media causing severe osmolaritychanges (Becker, 2004; Pulz, 2001; Lee, 2001). CO 2requirements are more than can be met from the naturalenvironment and thus constrain productivity. Hence carbonatesand bicarbonates are used as carbon sources. Fluegases and CO 2 can be directly used as inorganic carbon forgrowth of cells in autotrophic mode. Due to the abovementionedlimitations, the productivity of open ponds is low,and hence developing closed bioreactor systems for biomassproduction is preferred. One of the possible solutionsto prevent contamination and severe evaporation losses areto cover the ponds with a greenhouse, which limits pondsize considerably but gives a quasi-controlled environment.Pond managementSince open ponds are highly susceptible to environmentalfluctuations and contamination, certain measures areneeded to keep the cultures healthy and productive.Contamination by other algae is very common in openponds; this can be effectively managed by maintaining acritical cell concentration, preventing competing speciesgrowth. Contamination by rotifers can be controlled byreducing the culture pH, since they are sensitive to lowpH, and later re-adjusting cultures to optimum pH. Mixingis essential as accumulation of biomass in one place leadsto anaerobic decomposition and accumulation of bacteria.The most efficient way of maintaining cultures is througha batch system, with fresh unialgal inoculum as startingmaterial for every batch. An initial optimal optical densityof the culture is a key factor for health of culture andmaintenance. Since the emphasis is on the production ofbiomass with the minimum of energy inputs, it is desirableto use windmills for agitation of cultures and also usemarine forms to avoiding or minimize competition fromcontaminating organisms (Borowitzka, 2005).Closed cultivation systemsMaintenance of uni-algal culture in open ponds is verydifficult, but can be achieved in closed bioreactor systems.In closed configurations, various culture parameters canbe controlled and environment-sensitive strains growingin near-neutral pH conditions can be grown with higherproductivities in closed photobioreactors. The closed reactorsystems have high biomass productivity compared withopen ponds since culture parameters such as illumination,turbulence and air exchange can be carefully regulated(Grobbelaar, 2009, 2010).Six parameters or subsystems for photo bioreactors are,light source, optical transmission system, reaction area, gasexchange system, filtration system (removal of biomass)and sensing system. Light source is an important designconsideration, which includes variables like type of lightsource, intensity of light source, effect of light source on celldevelopment in the algal culture, and dark period requirementof the algae (Anderson, Anil and Schipull, 2002).Several of these parameters interact, such as the opticaltransmission system and gas exchange system via the mixingthat takes place in the reaction area.Three types of closed reactors are commonly employedfor mass cultivation: tubular; cylindrical or columnar; andflat plate (Lehr and Posten, 2009).Tubular bioreactors consist of an array of glass or plastictransparent tubes connected by U bends to capture moresunlight (Tredici and Materassi, 1992). They can be alignedin a flat plane or as a coil around a vertical cylindrical supportframework (Borowitzka, 1999). The tubes are generally5–10 cm in diameter. The algal cultures are circulatedin these narrow tubes using mechanical pumps or airliftsystems (Brennan and Owende, 2010). Tubular bioreactorshave high surface to volume ratio, hence light capture ishigher and gives high productivities. Spirulina platensisand Chlorella spp. have been successfully grown in thesesystems. Combined airlift-tubular systems have been usedin production of Porphyridium cruentum, Phaeodactylum
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BIOFUEL CO-PRODUCTS AS LIVESTOCK FE
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Recommended citationFAO. 2012. Biof
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vco-products to swine - Feeding cru
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viiCHAPTER 22Use of Pongamia glabra
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ixPrefaceHumans are faced with majo
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xiiCBMCBSCCDSCCKCDOCDSCFCFBCFRCGECI
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xivHCHOHClHCNHisH-JPKMHMCHPDDGHPDDG
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xviPPbPCVPDPEMPFADPhePJPKCPKEPKMPKO
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xviiiWBPWCGFWDGWDGSWDGSHWPCWTWWWNSK
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2Biofuel co-products as livestock f
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10Biofuel co-products as livestock
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35Chapter 3Impact of United States
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Impact of United States biofuels co
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101Chapter 6Hydrogen sulphide: synt
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Hydrogen sulphide in cattle fed co-
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155Chapter 8Utilization of crude gl
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Utilization of crude glycerin in be
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209Chapter 11Co-products from biofu
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Co-products from biofuel production
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275Chapter 15Sustainable and compet
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Sustainable and competitive use of
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291Chapter 16Scope for utilizing su
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Scope for utilizing sugar cane baga
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303Chapter 17Camelina sativa in pou
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Camelina sativa in poultry diets: o
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311Chapter 18Utilization of lipid c
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Utilization of lipid co-products of
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351Chapter 21Use of detoxified jatr
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Use of detoxified jatropha kernel m
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483Chapter 27Biofuels: their co-pro
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Biofuels: their co-products and wat
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501Chapter 28Utilization of co-prod
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523Contributing authorsSouheila Abb
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Contributing authors 525for the Fee
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Contributing authors 527Friederike
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Contributing authors 529Sustainable
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Contributing authors 531During the
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Contributing authors 533(Hons.) and
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