Water for people.pdf - WHO Thailand Digital Repository

3 1 6 / M A N A G E M E N T C H A L L E N G E S : S T E W A R D S H I P A N D G O V E R N A N C ESharing Water: Defining a Common Interestover the past century, with particular attention to treaties signedsince the Rio Conference, offers insights into how appropriately theemphasis areas highlighted in Agenda 21 and subsequentdeclarations on freshwater resource management in general addressthe specific needs of transboundary waters.The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has identified morethan 3,600 treaties relating to international water resources dating fromAD 805 to 1984, the majority of which relate to some aspect ofnavigation. In the last fifty years, approximately 200 treaties have beendeveloped addressing non-navigational issues of water management,including flood control, hydropower projects or allocations forconsumptive or non-consumptive uses in international basins.Despite their growth in numbers and clear historic contributionto successful basin-wide management, a review of the treaties fromthe last half-century reveals a general lack of robustness. Waterallocations, for example, the most conflictive issue betweencoriparian states, are seldom clearly delineated in water accords.Moreover, in the treaties that do specify quantities, allocations areoften in fixed amounts to riparian nations, thus ignoringhydrological variation and changing values and needs. This was thecase with the existing Nile basin accord between Egypt and Sudan.Likewise, review of such agreements shows that water qualityprovisions have played only a minor role in coriparian agreementshistorically. Monitoring, enforcement and conflict resolutionmechanisms are also absent in a large percentage of the treaties.Finally, only exceptionally do transboundary water agreementsinclude all riparian nations, which precludes the integrated basinmanagement advocated by the international community.One productive outgrowth from the transboundary treaty recordhas been a broadening in the definition and measurement of basinbenefits. Traditionally, coriparian states have focused on water as acommodity to be divided – a zero-sum, rights-based approach.Precedents now exist for determining formulas that equitablyallocate the benefits derived from water, not the water itself – awin-win, integrative approach. This is the approach now beingfollowed in the Nile Basin Initiative (see box 12.7 earlier).The treaties signed within the last ten years also reveal someencouraging developments. At least sixteen new bilateral andmultilateral water agreements have been concluded since thesigning of the Rio Declaration, covering basins in Asia, Africa,Europe and the Middle East. When compared with the treaties ofthe last half-century as a whole, a number of improvements cangenerally be seen in this more recent set of treaties. First, excludingagreements specifically focused on the environment, the majority ofthe treaties incorporate some type of water allocation measure.Second, provisions concerning water quality, monitoring andevaluation, data exchange and conflict resolution are included inmost of the post-Rio treaties. Third, while not a majority, four ofthe agreements establish joint water commissions with decisionmakingand/or enforcement powers, a significant departure from thetraditional advisory standing of basin commissions. Finally, countryparticipation in basin-level accords appears to be expanding.Although few of the agreements incorporate all basin states, twothirds are multilateral, and in several of the treaties, references aremade to the rights and interests of non-signatory nations.Institutional vulnerabilities still exist, however, in a number ofkey areas. Few of the treaties, for example, possess the flexibilityto handle changes in the hydrological regime or in regional values,and none specifically prioritize water usage in the basin. Referencesto water quality, related groundwater systems, monitoring andevaluation, and conflict resolution mechanisms, while growing innumbers, are often weak in actual substance. Furthermore, publicparticipation, an element that can greatly enhance the resiliency ofinstitutions, is largely overlooked. It is likely that these weaknesseswill be overcome as more experience is gained in the design ofeffective agreements and institutions.Transboundary Aquifers:Groundwater Shared by NationsWhile the debate about the equitable management oftransboundary rivers basins has taken place for many years, thesame cannot be stated about transboundary aquifers. As there aretransboundary river basins, so there are also transboundarygroundwater resources hidden below ground surface, in all parts ofthe world, which meet the basic needs of the rural and urbanpopulations. Some transboundary aquifers contain huge freshwaterresources, enough to provide safe and good-quality drinking water,as well as rural irrigation demands, thus securing food supplies.Though not visible as surface water, groundwater is widely occuring,if not ubiquitous in the global landmass. Chapter 4 of this bookgives further details on groundwater availability throughout theworld, in particular map 4.3.Transboundary aquifers, due to their partial isolation fromsurface impacts, generally contain excellent quality water. Althoughsuch resources represent a substantial hidden global capital, theyneed prudent management. Competition for visible transboundarysurface waters, based on available international law and hydraulicengineering, is evident in all continents. However, the hidden natureof transboundary groundwater and lack of legal frameworks invitesmisunderstandings by policy-makers. Not surprisingly therefore,transboundary aquifer management is still in its infancy, since itsevaluation is difficult, suffering from a lack of institutional will andfinance to collect the necessary information. Although there arefairly reliable estimates of the resources of the world’s