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4 3 4 / P I L O T C A S E S T U D I E S : A F O C U S O N R E A L - W O R L D E X A M P L E SSeine-Normandy Basin, Franceincreased significantly, even if the rate of progression has slowedsince 1989. The same concentrations are also occurring ingroundwater. 4 Today, some 25 percent of the basin’s groundwatermeasurement points show more than 40 milligrams (mg) of nitrateper litre; 12 percent show more than 50 mg/litre. But these nitraterates still are under the groundwater threshold for producing drinkingwater (which is 100 mg/litre, while it is 50 mg/litre for surface water).Nitrate is also the third biggest cause of coastal and seawaterpollution. When combined with phosphate, it can causeeutrophication and the proliferation of toxic microalgae. Phosphateinput from continental sources, which is the main cause ofeutrophication in freshwater, has decreased considerably but is stilltoo high. 5Metal concentrations are also decreasing. 6 While naturallypresent in small quantities in the aquatic environment, metals alsocome from insufficiently treated wastewater and from surface runoffin urban areas. While the accidental discharge of highly toxiccontaminants that kill fish is now rare, high concentrations are stillmeasured near contaminated sites.On the other hand, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrationsare still alarming, even though they are decreasing. 7 Although PCBshave not been manufactured since 1987, they are still produced bythe incineration of domestic waste and the manufacture of paintsand lubricants. Along with metals and hydrocarbons, PCBs are thesecond biggest cause of coastal and seawater contamination (aftermicrobiological pollution). Groundwater is, however, little affected byorganic micropollutants other than pesticides.Pesticides, used not only in agriculture but also along railwaysand roads and in gardens, are a serious problem in the Seine-Normandy basin. Triazines – highly soluble, mobile and persistentorgano-nitrogenous compounds – are the most prominent. They arepresent in surface water (with peaks in spring), coastal waters and,above all, in groundwater. 8In general, organic micropollutants are a major watermanagement problem because the concentrations that must bemeasured are extremely low and new synthetic molecules, whichmust also be detected, are constantly appearing. Map 19.3 showsthe basin’s physico-chemical fitness between 1997 and 1999.4. In 2000, out of 407 wells, 37 percent had nitrate contents between 20 and40 milligrams per litre and 14 percent had very poor quality water (>50 mg/litre).5. The flux entering the Seine estuary decreased from 60 to 39 t/day between 1974and 1999.6. Since 1976, there has been a decrease at Poses (lower Seine) in the dissolved metalloads of cadmium (a tenfold decrease over the last thirty years), cobalt, chromium,mercury, nickel, lead and zinc. Those of other metals, such as copper, titanium,vanadium, iron and manganese are also decreasing, but less markedly.7. Their concentration has been decreasing since 1978, but is still five to six timesgreater than the national average.8. Half of the 371 wells in the monitoring network were contaminated in 1999. Fortypercent had triazine concentrations of over 0.1 micrograms per litre.Biodiversity on the upturnOut of a total of thirty-three fish species that have been identifiedas belonging to the local ecosystem, twenty-six are still commonlyfound today, a considerable improvement over the 1960s when thediversity and number of fish had declined due to heavy waterpollution (Belliard, 2001). The Seine-Normandy basin’sHydrobiological and Piscicultural Network for monitoring fishpopulations now has 143 stations. Three or four times a year,electrical fishing techniques are used to study fish populations. Thelive fish are then returned to the river. While conditions near theedges of the basin are generally favourable to fish life, this is notthe case in its centre (in the Seine River, in particular). In smallrivers, non-point source pollution and the silting up of riverbeds arethe main causes of the decrease in fish populations. In large rivers,the causes are mainly physical barriers and discharge from urbanareas. Along with the negative impact of anthropogenic pressure(seven species are no longer present), about twenty new specieshave been introduced by humans, 9 who have also brought ininvasive plant species, such as Japanese knotweed. 10Readily available water dataThe Seine-Normandy Water Agency (AESN, Agence de l’Eau Seine-Normandie) and French government services, together with otherpublic institutions, manage several measurement networks thatgather quantitative and qualitative data on surface water andgroundwater. For example, common surface water qualityparameters were measured at 441 points in the basin in 2000. Ofthese, 171 were also analysed for metals and 120 formicropollutants. These points are sampled six to forty-eight times ayear, for determination of more than 150 parameters (for a total ofnearly 2 million data items/year), which vary in time and space withfield conditions. The groundwater quality network uses 402 wellsand piezometers to monitor the basin’s ten major aquifers. Samplesare taken twelve to forty-eight times a year for determination ofmore than 250 parameters (nearly 3 million data items/year).Networks have also been set up to monitor coastal waters. In 2000,water samples from 130 sites were analysed for swimming quality,twenty-two sites for shellfish and eleven sites for marine sediments.In estuaries, coastal rivers, swimming areas and at discharge points,the principal tests carried out are bacteriological analyses(Escherichia coli, Enterococci), backed up by chemical analyses9. Examples of species that have been introduced are ruff and hotu (Chondrostomanasus), and those that have disappeared include sturgeon, sea trout (orsqueteague), salmon and sea lamprey.10. The phytophora fungus, part of whose life cycle is in rivers, severely damagesalders, which are of major ecological and silvicultural importance. The Dreissene isan invasive mollusc in rivers. Cladophora and Vaucheria are green algae that thrivein eutrophic environments and have been introduced by humans from aquariums.Cyanophyta are also disturbing in freshwater environments for health reasons.
S E I N E - N O R M A N D Y B A S I N , F R A N C E / 4 3 5Map 19.3: Water quality in the Seine-Normandy basinQuantitative and qualitative data on surface water and groundwater are processed using a Quality Evaluation System (SEQ-Eau) based on indicator sets and use requirements.Sources: AESN, 2001b. IGN-BD Cartho 94.(suspended particulate matter, oxidizability, nitrate, chloride).Shellfish are analysed for bacteria (total coliform count,Streptococci, Salmonella), metals and radioactivity. Marinesediments are analysed for radioactivity.The resulting data are processed using a Quality EvaluationSystem (SEQ-Eau) based on both the notion of indicators (groups ofsimilar parameters, such as ‘metal’ or ‘nitrate’) and therequirements of the various uses (drinking water supply, irrigation,swimming). This system is very flexible and enables water quality tobe evaluated according to the most relevant criteria for a given use.Quantitative data are measured at 174 rain gauges, 214piezometers and 418 hydrometric stations. These enable monitoringof flood risk and the possible effect of flooding on water quality.Water level records are stored in a database and are available to thepublic via web site. 11 Most of this data is also available to the publicon the AESN web site, 12 which uses dedicated software to producesummaries by measuring point and parameter, upon request.In France, the public is very aware of the seriousness ofenvironmental problems, especially where human health may beaffected. People living in the Seine-Normandy basin are much moreconcerned about water quality than they are about watershortages. They know that pesticides and chemical fertilizers are amajor problem and understand that water has to be ‘cleaned up’before it is discharged. They therefore consider it normal to pay forthis service although they object when they think the price is toohigh for the service provided or that the costs are not beingequitably shared among stakeholders. Interestingly, waterconsumption has dropped recently, but studies show that price isnot directly responsible for this trend.11. http://infoterre.brgm.fr/12. www.eau-seine-normandie.fr
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A joint report by thetwenty three U
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F I G U R E S / V9.1: Competing wat
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B O X E S / VII19.1: Seine-Normandy
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14 HolisticTable of contentsThinkin
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E N S U R I N G T H E K N O W L E D
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Page 405 and 406: 16Table of contentsGeneral Context
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Page 421 and 422: L A K E P E I P S I / C H U D S K O
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viNo intro text supplied for part V
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5 0 2 / F I T T I N G T H E P I E C
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The World’s Water Crisis: Fitting
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5 3 6 / A N N E X E SAnnexesAcronym
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538 / A N N E X E SAcronymsSAGEs:Lo
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5 4 0 / A N N E X E SSome Other Glo
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5 4 2 / A N N E X E SSome Other Glo
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544 / A N N E X E SIndexwater avail
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546 / A N N E X E SIndexagriculture
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548 / A N N E X E SIndexCongo, Repu
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550 / A N N E X E SIndexnational re
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554 / A N N E X E SIndexsustainabil
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556 / A N N E X E SIndexwater quali
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558 / A N N E X E SIndexJohannesbur
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562 / A N N E X E SIndexland area 7
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566 / A N N E X E SIndexin rivers 8
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568 / A N N E X E SIndexsolid waste
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570 / A N N E X E SIndexconflicts a
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