Educational Psychology—Limitations and Possibilities

360 The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology
identify roles that people can take that foster change in the present system. A second dimension
of this visionary education is that of a vision of development that overcomes the limitations of
the mainstream conceptions of development, that of a dynamic of wholeness that encompasses
the entire world. The third dimension of a visionary education that contributes to transformative
learning, is bringing attention to the impact the first world (Western) has on others the lives of
others in the world. More specifically, it means fostering a sense of community, a sense of place,
and encouraging diversity within and between communities. Essential to this sense of place is a
civic culture, where individuals play an active role of caretaking the environment and keeping
a watchful and critical eye on the government. The last theme of this vision means recognizing
the significance of the sacred. Transformative learning must address the topic of spirituality, a
spiritual destiny, where there is a greater emphasis on nurturing the soul and spirit, and less
emphasis on materialism.
These three views of transformative learning offer varied perspectives on the nature of significant
paradigmatic transformation and its relationship to the larger sociocultural context.
Mezirow’s work is much more centered on the individual and the nature of change. However,
as discussed in greater detail, essential to significant personal change is the larger personal and
historical context. Freire moves away from the individual somewhat, with more attention given to
the goal of the transformation, that of fostering political awareness and social justice. Similarly, is
the work by O’Sullivan, who spends even less time on the individual nature of change, and more
on articulating a transformative vision and educational practices that foster change. Despite the
differences between these varied and contested perspectives of transformation, there are several
core premises that they share to a greater or less extent that reflect a situated, socially constructed
view of adult learning. Furthermore, these core premises have implications for the practice of
adult education and educational psychology.
Four common themes are the centrality of experience, critical reflection, rational discourse,
and the significance of context in the process of transformation. The first theme, experience is
much more central to the work of Mezirow and Freire. It is the learner’s experience that is the
starting point and the subject matter for transformative learning. Experience is seen as socially
constructed, so that it can be deconstructed and acted upon. It is personal experience that provides
the grist for critical reflection and critique. In particular, it is shared learning experiences that are
most significant to fostering transformative learning. Shared experiences provide a mutual base
from which each learner makes meaning through group discussion and personal reflection. The
group often subjects the meanings that learners attach to their experiences to critical analysis.
Group discussion often disrupts the learner’s worldview and stimulates questioning and doubt in
learners about their previously taken-for-granted interpretations of experience.
The second theme, critical reflection, imbued with rationality and analysis, is considered a distinguishing
characteristic of transformative learning. It is in adulthood where individuals begin
to become aware of half-truths, unquestioned conventional wisdom, and power relationships and
how he or she is being shaped by their own history. Critical reflection involves questioning the
integrity of personal, social, cultural, and political assumptions and beliefs based on prior experience.
It often occurs in response to an awareness of a contradiction among our thoughts, feelings,
and actions. These contradictions are generally the result of distorted epistemic (nature and use
of knowledge), psychological (acting inconsistently from our self-concept), and sociolinguistic
(mechanisms by which society and language limit our perceptions) assumptions. In essence, we
realize something is not consistent with what we hold to be true and act in relation to our world.
It is the process of giving attention to the justification for what we know, feel, believe, and act
upon in the world.
The third theme of transformative learning is rational discourse. Rational discourse is the
essential medium through which transformation is promoted and developed. However, in contrast