Educational Psychology—Limitations and Possibilities

Albert Bandura 51
and changed her own behavior as a result. This is an example of learning that takes place through
vicarious reinforcement.
Another Freudian assumption popular with psychologists at the time of Bandura’s early Bobo
doll experiments was that viewing violent or aggressive acts would have a draining effect that
reduced aggression in the individual. This assumption was termed the catharsis effect. Both
Bandura’s Bobo doll study and his studies with aggressive adolescent males disproved the assumptions
of the catharsis effect. On the basis of these studies and others, Bandura developed a
theory of observational learning and motivation that he termed social cognition theory.
In social cognition theory, Bandura presents human behavior as being largely a product of
direct and indirect learning. As discussed previously, direct learning (also referred to as trial and
error learning) is reinforced through the learner’s receipt of rewards or punishments. Indirect
learning (also called vicarious learning and observational learning) occurs when the learner alters
his or her behavior without receiving rewards or punishment. Recall again the example of the
brother and sister on the shopping trip with their mother. Before she began imitating her brother’s
begging, the sister had received no direct reinforcement for her behavior; she observed the brother
beg and be rewarded, then she changed her behavior. For Bandura, observational learning had
important advantages over trial and error learning. Whereas trial and error learning is risky and
time-consuming, observational learning saves the learner both time and risk by allowing him or
her to learn from the successes and mistakes of others. For Bandura, humans have a great capacity
for symbolism; we can retain socially modeled information in the form of mental images or verbal
descriptions that serve as symbols for future behavior. Through social modeling, individuals can
extend their learning by using symbols from the original modeled behavior to guide future rules
for action. Returning once again to the example of the brother and sister on the shopping trip,
Bandura argued that the sister will be able to apply her learning to different situations. For
example, having retained the symbol of her brother receiving a reward for begging his mother,
she might try begging her father or grandparents for a desired toy. She might try begging her
mother to allow her to spend the night at a friend’s house. In each case, the learner becomes able
to apply his or her observational learning to new situations in ways that guide his or her future
actions.
Central to Bandura’s theory of social cognition is the term triadic reciprocal causation, which
describes the simultaneous influences of thoughts, feelings, and the environment on human behavior.
For Bandura, human behavior results from interactions between individual biological factors
(e.g., cognitive capabilities), psychological factors (e.g., emotional states), and the environment.
These factors influence and are, in turn, influenced by one another; the interactions among these
biological, psychological, and environmental factors produce variations in human behavior. The
results of reciprocal causation are that humans are at the same time producers of and products of
their environment.
For a practical example of triadic reciprocal causation, imagine that you and other college
students are seated on the first day of class, waiting for your professor to arrive. As you wait,
you join in small talk with the other students. The professor arrives; upon entering the room she
makes eye contact and confidently announces that class will now begin. According to Bandura,
the behaviors of the professor will be influenced by her emotional state (e.g., Is she excited about
teaching the course? Does she believe herself to be an effective instructor?), her cognitions (e.g.,
her initial thoughts about the course and students), and the classroom environment. Suppose that
when the professor enters the classroom you and your classmates continue with your small talk
and fail to acknowledge her entrance. Your actions might create a negative classroom environment
for the professor to react to. On the other hand, you and your classmates might stop talking as
the professor enters and focus your attention on her, indicating that you are ready to begin class.
These two very different environmental responses on your part will interact with the professor’s