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Figure 8.29: Plot of F1 vs. F2 (Speaker K) ......................................................................154
Figure 8.30: Plot of F1 vs. F3 (Speaker K) ......................................................................156
Figure 8.31: Plot of F1 vs. F2' (Speaker K)......................................................................156
Figure 8.32: Plot of F1 vs. F2 (Speaker K) with location of American English vowels -,
3, and ) indicated .......................................................................................157
Figure 8.33: Spectrogram of Mono vowels spoken in isolation (Speaker K) .................159
Figure 8.34: Waveform and spectrogram of the word FH FH FH FH ‘egg’ spoken with rapid and
normal speaking rates (Speaker K) .............................................................161
Figure 8.35: Waveform and spectrogram of the word =(>=(=( =(>=(=( =(>=(=( =(>=(=( ‘bait’ spoken with rapid
and normal speaking rates (Speaker A) ......................................................161
Figure 8.36: Waveform and spectrogram of the word >== >== >== >== ‘elephant’ spoken with rapid
and normal speaking rates (Speaker K) .............................................162
Figure 8.37: Waveform and spectrogram of the possible word =>= =>= =>= (Speaker K) ..........164
Figure 8.38: Waveform and spectrogram of the nonsense word == == == == (Speaker K). A nasal
formant FN is visible at approximately 2100 Hz.........................................165
Figure 8.39: Waveform and spectrogram of the possible word == == == == (Speaker K). A nasal
formant FN is visible at approximately 2100 Hz. Formant tracking marks
show FN in second vowel ............................................................................165
Figure 8.40: Waveform and spectrogram of the word > > > > ‘tobacco’ (Speaker K) ........166
Figure 8.41: Waveform and spectrogram of the word ( ( ( ( ‘hippo’ (Speaker K) ..........167
Figure 8.42: Spectrogram of the word (CM= (CM= (CM= (CM= ‘pack, wrap up’ spoken at a slow speaking
rate. (Speaker K) .........................................................................................169
Figure 8.43: Waveform, F0 trace, and spectrogram of the phrase ( ( ( ( C= C= C= C= C= C= C= C= ‘It’s difficult
to stir’ (Speaker K)......................................................................................170
Figure 8.44: Waveform, F0 trace, and spectrogram of the underlined portion of the phrase
A@A A@A A@A A@A I( I( I( I( ( (M=(=M=
( (M=(=M=
M=(=M= M=(=M= C(C( C(C( C(C( C(C( =(I( =(I( =(I( =(I( ‘They will be returning now.’
(Speaker K) .................................................................................................171
Figure C.1: Classification of African languages. Data from Greenberg (1970) and
Williamson & Blench (2000) ......................................................................241
Figure D.1: Geographic distribution of the labial flap in Africa. Data from Grimes
(1996) and Moseley & Asher (1994) ..........................................................276