„‚ CONDITIONS THAT HINDER EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

This approach is variously identified as “difference-score,” “gain-score,” or
“change-score” analysis. In conventional usage a pretest is given, a treatment
administered, and a posttest given. The two scores are compared, presuming that
differences in test scores are a function of the treatment. Various forms of change
analysis are widely used in teaching, counseling, and training to make assessments of
performance.
Change-score analysis has been variously criticized, and its utility as a valid basis
for inference has been rejected by some researchers. The objections are mainly
statistical, having to do with the unreliability of such scores. In addition, it is not clear
that the change is due to the treatment (or behavior of the party being evaluated).
CONSIDERATIONS
Some of the approaches discussed here suggest useful ways of making judgments
descriptive and, therefore, more effective. Change scores do provide descriptive
judgments, but they are sufficiently weak as a basis for judgment that their value in
appraising performance is minimized. Particular applications may occur, such as the
shaping of desired behavior; but equating “good” merely with “better” is not likely to be
helpful. Content-referenced appraisal has the limitations already suggested.
However, both norm- and criterion-referenced judgments offer more promising
application in the context described here. With the former it is important that the
reference parties and the measures used be agreed on prior to behavior. With the latter it
is important that the criterion be acceptable prior to behavior. In both cases the parties
involved are merely defining “good” before the fact—an essential factor in evaluating
what “good” is.
REFERENCES
American Psychological Association. (1974). Standards for educational and psychological tests. Washington, DC:
Author.
Berne, E. (1961). Transactional analysis in psychotherapy. New York: Grove.
Filley, A.C. (1975). Interpersonal conflict resolution. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Hanson, P.G. (1975). Giving feedback: An interpersonal skill. In J.E. Jones & J.W. Pfeiffer (Eds.), The 1975
annual handbook for group facilitators. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company.
Harris, T. (1969). I’m OK, you’re OK. New York: Harper & Row.
Pfeiffer, J.W., & Jones, J.E. (1972). Openness, collusion and feedback. In J.W. Pfeiffer & J.E. Jones (Eds.), The
1972 annual handbook for group facilitators. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company.
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The Pfeiffer Library Volume 6, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer