„‚ CONDITIONS THAT HINDER EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

about how to develop and use influence are based on their study of program managers at
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
THE NASA STUDY
The authors have been working with NASA since 1976. Their work has focused
primarily on investigating the management competencies indicative of successful
manager-subordinate relationships at two levels of management, the executive level and
the middle level. Thus, management competence has been examined from a vertical
standpoint. Recently, however, a new kind of manager has developed at NASA; and this
individual, the “program manager,” does not fit the traditional management mold.
Management practices previously identified as related to effective interpersonal
relationships are inappropriate for successful interaction involving program managers.
The program-management function involves the accomplishment of a broad
scientific or technical goal in NASA’s long-range plan through the management of a
series of related projects that continue over a period of time, normally years. Program
managers are staff officials who are connected with all of the NASA administrative
activities that their programs comprise. Their basic responsibilities include developing
and administering the guidelines and controls within which projects are conducted,
competing with other program managers for resources allocated, preparing testimony
and justification for Presidential and Congressional authorization, and monitoring
project execution and relating that execution to NASA’s overall objectives (Chapman,
1973).
What is unique about this position is the fact that program managers must manage
relationships between and among different organizational units without the power of
position or the power to reward. Program managers must interact with managers who
are of equal or higher status and who have responsibility and decision-making authority
for their own organizational units. Therefore, program managers must be able to
influence others if they are to accomplish their objectives. Without having direct control,
they must affect different people’s behavior and attitudes.
The program manager’s dilemma is considerable. At the outset of a program, the
manager goes to Congress to vie for that program, explaining the need to investigate the
particular area of aeronautical and/or space research involved. Thus, the manager must
present convincing and technically sound arguments for the pursuit of his or her
objectives, explaining how these objectives fit within NASA’s overall goals. Assuming
that the program in question is funded, the program manager must see to it that the
program plans go through the proper administrative channels for authorization. At this
point the manager has funding for his or her program and, consequently, is in a position
of power in NASA—at least temporarily.
Then the program manager determines which of NASA’s field centers can best
fulfill the program’s technical and research requirements. Once this has been
determined, the manager must “sell” the program plans to the personnel at the chosen
The Pfeiffer Library Volume 6, 2nd Edition. Copyright ©1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer ❚❘ 387