Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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the right between the parked cars in order to catch a glimpse of a possible vehicle that was approaching from the right. It is too premature to conclude from eye movements in this one semi covert latent hazard that novice drivers are poorer in detecting and recognizing covert latent hazards than older, more experienced drivers even when they do not have to drive. Records of eye movements in more video clips with different covert latent hazards and overt latent hazards of both novice drivers and experienced drivers are required for a substantiated conclusion whether novice drivers have more difficulties in detecting covert latent hazards than overt latent hazards. This is one of the aims of the study presented in this chapter. In the experiment conducted by Huestegge et al. (2010), novice drivers and experienced drivers watched snapshots of traffic situations taken from the driver's perspective while their eye movements were recorded. These snapshots were exposed on a screen for two seconds. Participants had to indicate as soon as possible after the snapshot became visible, if they would brake in this situation or not. If their decision was 'brake' they had to push a button, if they decided not to brake they needed to do nothing. Three experts in driving divided the snapshots into three categories: snapshots in which braking was urgent, snapshots in which there was a medium necessity to brake and snapshots with a low necessity to brake. There were no differences between experienced drivers and novice drivers with regard to the decision to brake or not to brake in all three categories, but when the response was 'brake', experienced drivers reacted faster than novice drivers did. With regard to eye movements, the researchers measured how long it took after the snapshot became visible before participants fixated for the first time in the area that contained the (overt) hazard. There was no difference between novice drivers and experienced drivers in latency of the first fixation on the hazard. There were also no differences in number of fixations and in fixation durations. However, the time between the first fixation on the hazard and the button press (when the response was 'brake') was shorter for experienced drivers than for novice drivers. This could indicate that in situations with imminent overt hazards (because braking is required to avert a collision) the time to detect these overt hazards does not differ between novice drivers and experienced drivers, but the time to select the action to brake after the imminent overt hazards was detected, is shorter for experienced drivers than for novice drivers. This could indicate that for novice drivers, intervention of the SAS in the contention scheduling is required and that experienced drivers can react directly on contention scheduling only (see the Sections 3.8.1, 3.8.2 and 3.8.3). 133
In the study presented in this chapter a similar task with snapshots was developed, but now with three response options: 'braking' in case of an imminent hazard, release throttle in case of a latent hazard (both covert latent and overt latent) and 'do nothing' in cases there were no plausible latent hazards. This task was used because in both the study of Kelly et al. (2010) and the study Huestegge et al. (2010), novice drivers and experienced drivers performed equally well in detecting and recognizing imminent hazards, latent hazards and no hazards in photographs of traffic situations taken from the driver's perspective. If there is no difference in detection and recognition if participants have the time to process information when they look at snapshots, could it be that they differ in the willingness to take risks in these situations? 4.1.8. Summary of the objectives and ideas about apparatus and materials The objective of the study presented in this chapter is to gain insight in the improvement in hazard anticipation after licensing. It is assumed that hazard anticipation has a cognitive aspect (the detection and recognition of latent hazards and the prediction how recognized latent hazards can develop into real threats) and an emotional and motivational aspect (threat appraisal, risk acceptance and calibration). Both are interrelated, but it is hypothesised that the former aspect primarily improves with culminating driving experience and the latter aspect primarily improves with age. Latent hazards involving other road users can be overt or covert. Overt latent hazards are visible other road users that may start to act dangerously in the given circumstances and covert latent hazards are possible other road users on collision course that are hidden from view. There are indications that novice drivers have more difficulties in anticipating covert latent hazards than overt latent hazards but to date, systematic research on this topic to is missing. This study is also intended to gain insight in possible differences in the anticipation of overt latent hazards and covert latent hazards by novice drivers and experienced drivers. The idea is to develop two tasks: one with emphasis on the cognitive aspect of hazard anticipation and one with emphasis on the emotional and motivational aspect of hazard anticipation. Three groups carry out these two tasks: young novice drivers, older novice drivers and experienced drivers. In order to test the cognitive aspect, participants watch video clips taken from the perspective of a driver. Participants are requested to imagine that they are the driver of car in the video clips. The video clips contain both overt latent hazards and covert latent hazards that do not materialize. This is to say 134
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Hazard anticipation of young novice
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SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
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Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
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development of hazard perception te
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Table of contents 1. General introd
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1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
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27% of all driver fatalities were d
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eported 73 car crashes during the p
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with respondents that started their
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2. Determinants that influence haza
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planning of a trip, choice of the m
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that encompasses the entire second
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peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
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Figure 2.2. Model of the different
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Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
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Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
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When do these sex differences emerg
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Functional brain differences in boy
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oth groups had in common was their
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3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
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is less in these brain areas, but a
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2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
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deduced that car drivers younger th
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or little interference with the dri
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2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
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Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
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impact on road safety. Despite the
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condition for the older, more exper
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person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
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tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
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traffic situation is safe enough to
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2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
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58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
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100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
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less well equipped to detect and re
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3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
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Drivers are aware of hazards when t
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1. Possible other road users on col
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oriented and the vertical axis is t
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Page 85 and 86: the task demands. The range of acce
Page 87 and 88: Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
Page 89 and 90: with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
Page 91 and 92: elatively high speed in the same di
Page 93 and 94: only associated with top-down activ
Page 95 and 96: information transformation processe
Page 97 and 98: (consciously) controlled action reg
Page 99 and 100: on the left lane of a motorway (in
Page 101 and 102: 3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
Page 103 and 104: driver does not think that she or h
Page 105 and 106: for experienced drivers even in cir
Page 107 and 108: sound was heard) and some participa
Page 109 and 110: stage. In this stage, learners comm
Page 111 and 112: A theory that explains how we may l
Page 113 and 114: were about to turn left while their
Page 116 and 117: 4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
Page 118 and 119: hazards, drivers have to imagine a
Page 120 and 121: overview of their studies: McKenna
Page 122 and 123: with regard to the risk felt in the
Page 124 and 125: Participants were requested to pres
Page 126 and 127: of the visual acuity in the fovea.
Page 128 and 129: working memory. Both bottom-up proc
Page 130 and 131: without gaze control (the gray arro
Page 132 and 133: urban areas than on rural roads, no
Page 136 and 137: that in the video clips no visible
Page 138 and 139: • Young learner drivers (age rang
Page 140 and 141: • Did you have moments that you t
Page 142 and 143: difference between overt latent haz
Page 144 and 145: 4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
Page 146 and 147: ecognition task, risk assessment an
Page 148 and 149: Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
Page 150 and 151: that cognitive aspects of hazard an
Page 152 and 153: 80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
Page 154 and 155: Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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Page 158 and 159: Discussion about fixated latent haz
Page 160 and 161: mentioned latent hazards, young lea
Page 162 and 163: Gaze directions and fixation durati
Page 164 and 165: 4.3.3. Relationship between the two
Page 166 and 167: selection task cannot be used to te
Page 168 and 169: Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
Page 170 and 171: more difficulties to detect and rec
Page 172 and 173: 5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
Page 174 and 175: • The video task and the photo ta
Page 176 and 177: animation clips were made, each las
Page 178 and 179: The photo task Three experts on the
Page 180 and 181: 5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 182 and 183: 5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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The effect size was small, η 2 P =
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action selection task of Chapter 4,
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3. Effect of interruptions The inte
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5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
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The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
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6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
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In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
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students, whereas participants that
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for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
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A screen capture of the centre scre
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Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
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latent hazards. This is not very su
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For the control group the opposite
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The combined three near transfer si
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training program was mostly on over
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7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
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ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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transport. It can also be status, a
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of this is an intervention in the a
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performance in hazard detection and
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than both other groups. It is likel
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etter scanning for latent hazards i
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hazards are a good indicator of som
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order to avoid attribution of an ex
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References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
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underlying reaction time to visual
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Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
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Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
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Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
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Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
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Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
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Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
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Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
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Summary Driving most of the times,
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Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
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framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
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and older learner drivers. From the
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prepare participants for the tasks.
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group than before the training and
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verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
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status en een auto betekent ook vri
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Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
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en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
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afgerond, hadden ook een significan
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om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
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About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
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4. On a rural road when driving str
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they keep on walking in the same di
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5. The driver drivers straight on a
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Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
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Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
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economic progress and world trade.
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Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
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Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
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MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
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PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
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SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
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