Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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is less in these brain areas, but also the distribution of gray and white matter is different. Probably the basal ganglia (in connection with the PFC) also have an important function in the development of ADHD. However, MRIstudies about differences in the basal ganglia in persons with ADHD and persons without ADHD are not conclusive. Despite this fact, people with damage to the basal ganglia (because of a stroke) develop ADHD later in life (after the stroke) (Krain & Castellanos, 2006). The effect of ADHD on road safety has received much more attention of researchers than ASD. According to a meta-analysis in which thirteen studies were included, the odds ratio for being involved in a car crash of young drivers diagnosed with ADHD was 1.88, 95% CI [1.42, 2.50] (Jerome, Segal, & Habinski, 2006). Drivers with ADHD are more often inattentive, adhere less to the rules of the road, show reduced inhibition and are more easily distracted than non-ADHD drivers (Barkley & Cox, 2007). 2.4. Norms Values / Competences (Nurture) 2.4.1. Youth cultures / Lifestyle A car is not only a means of transportation (getting from A to B in a relative fast, safe and comfortable way). There are additional motives for driving. Møller (2004) explored these additional motives for young drivers. She distinguished four different psychosocial motives that were mentioned by young drivers in a focus group. These psychosocial motives were: visibility ('See me driving like Michael Schumacher in this fast car'), status ('My friends will respect me now that I have a car' and 'I'm king of the road in my own car'), control ('It gives me a kick to be in control of this car when I drive fast') and mobility and freedom ('Now that I have a car I can go whenever and where ever I want' and 'I can enjoy myself with my friends in my car'). According to the Problem Behaviour Theory (PBT) (Jessor, 1987) motives for in this case risky driving are also motives for other deviant behaviour such as unsafe sex, smoking, alcohol consumption and illicit drug use. Although these activities are perceived as deviant behaviour by society, they can be functional in the life of adolescents (e.g. explore roles, attitudes and values and becoming independent of parents). PBT categorizes motives for reckless behaviour in three systems. The first system is the perceived environment system. This includes for instance peer group pressure. The second system is the personality system (i.e., feelings and perceptions about the self that promotes tolerance of deviance) and the third system is the behavioural system (other risky behaviour than the risky behaviour of study). In PBT, risky driving 43
ehaviour is considered as symptom of a syndrome. This syndrome is a problematic adolescent lifestyle. Shope, Raghunathan, & Patil (2003) found that drink driving and involvement in alcohol-related crashes were predicted by friends' support for drinking, susceptibility to peer pressure (perceived environment system) and tolerance of deviance (the personality system). Also a preference for some types of leisure time activities has been found to be related to self-reported risky driving behaviour (Møller & Gregersen, 2008; Møller & Sigurðardóttir, 2009). These activities could be characterized by low structure and high impulsivity such as playing PC-games, visiting fitness centres and partying with friends. Gregersen & Berg (1994) asked drivers that were 20 years of age in a questionnaire about their lifestyle, driving behaviour and crash involvement. They distinguished four lifestyle profiles with a crash rate that was 1.5 times the average crash rate and two lifestyle profiles with a lower crash rate than average (.75 times the average crash rate). The first high-risk group (10% of the respondents) was predominantly male. They were rarely active in sport, liked to consume alcohol, were interested in cars and liked to drive for fun. The second highrisk group (5% of the respondents) could be characterized as young urban professionals (yuppies). The young drivers in this group had a high annual mileage and although driving in the first place was considered as a means of transportation in this group (fast and comfortable), the type of car mattered to them (status). The way they were dressed and cultural activities also were important to them. Just like the first group, they liked to consume alcohol, but unlike the first group they did not drive for fun. 62% of this group was male. The third high-risk group (2% of the respondents and mainly male) did not consume alcohol and were not much socially engaged, but had strong additional motives for driving (i.e. showing off, pleasure, sensation seeking). They also were interested in cars and drove often at night. The fourth and last high-risk group (4% of the respondents and 61% male) did not drive a lot, were not socially engaged, but when they drove additional motives were very important to them. The first low-risk group was large (23% of the respondents) and predominantly female. The young drivers in this group rarely drove, did not consume alcohol and scored a little higher than average on culture and social engagements. This group was not interested in driving and in cars. The second low-risk group (6% of the respondents and 68% female) was active in sport did not consume alcohol and was not interested in clothes, movies and cars. For this group, driving had nothing special. In contrast to the first low-risk group however, they liked to drive to parties. 44
Page 1 and 2: Hazard anticipation of young novice
Page 3 and 4: SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
Page 5 and 6: Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
Page 7 and 8: development of hazard perception te
Page 10 and 11: Table of contents 1. General introd
Page 14 and 15: 1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
Page 16 and 17: 27% of all driver fatalities were d
Page 18 and 19: eported 73 car crashes during the p
Page 20 and 21: with respondents that started their
Page 22 and 23: 2. Determinants that influence haza
Page 24 and 25: planning of a trip, choice of the m
Page 26 and 27: that encompasses the entire second
Page 28 and 29: peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
Page 30 and 31: Figure 2.2. Model of the different
Page 32 and 33: Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
Page 36 and 37: When do these sex differences emerg
Page 38 and 39: Functional brain differences in boy
Page 40 and 41: oth groups had in common was their
Page 42 and 43: 3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
Page 46 and 47: 2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
Page 48 and 49: deduced that car drivers younger th
Page 50 and 51: or little interference with the dri
Page 52 and 53: 2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
Page 54 and 55: Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
Page 56 and 57: impact on road safety. Despite the
Page 58 and 59: condition for the older, more exper
Page 60 and 61: person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
Page 62 and 63: tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
Page 64 and 65: traffic situation is safe enough to
Page 66 and 67: 2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
Page 68 and 69: 58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
Page 70 and 71: 100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
Page 72: less well equipped to detect and re
Page 75 and 76: 3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
Page 77 and 78: Drivers are aware of hazards when t
Page 79 and 80: 1. Possible other road users on col
Page 81 and 82: oriented and the vertical axis is t
Page 83 and 84: away from me, given the particular
Page 85 and 86: the task demands. The range of acce
Page 87 and 88: Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
Page 89 and 90: with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
Page 91 and 92: elatively high speed in the same di
Page 93 and 94: only associated with top-down activ
Page 95 and 96:
information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
Page 101 and 102:
3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
Page 103 and 104:
driver does not think that she or h
Page 105 and 106:
for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
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were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
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the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
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Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
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that cognitive aspects of hazard an
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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
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Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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latent hazards was higher than the
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Discussion about fixated latent haz
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mentioned latent hazards, young lea
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Gaze directions and fixation durati
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4.3.3. Relationship between the two
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selection task cannot be used to te
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Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
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more difficulties to detect and rec
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5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
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• The video task and the photo ta
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animation clips were made, each las
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The photo task Three experts on the
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5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
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5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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The effect size was small, η 2 P =
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action selection task of Chapter 4,
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3. Effect of interruptions The inte
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5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
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The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
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6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
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In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
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students, whereas participants that
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for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
Page 212 and 213:
A screen capture of the centre scre
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Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
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latent hazards. This is not very su
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For the control group the opposite
Page 222 and 223:
The combined three near transfer si
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training program was mostly on over
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7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
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ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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transport. It can also be status, a
Page 232 and 233:
of this is an intervention in the a
Page 234 and 235:
performance in hazard detection and
Page 236 and 237:
than both other groups. It is likel
Page 238 and 239:
etter scanning for latent hazards i
Page 240 and 241:
hazards are a good indicator of som
Page 242 and 243:
order to avoid attribution of an ex
Page 244 and 245:
References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247:
underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249:
Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
Page 250 and 251:
Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253:
Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255:
Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257:
Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259:
Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261:
Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
Page 262 and 263:
Summary Driving most of the times,
Page 264 and 265:
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
Page 266 and 267:
framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
Page 268 and 269:
and older learner drivers. From the
Page 270 and 271:
prepare participants for the tasks.
Page 272:
group than before the training and
Page 275 and 276:
verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
Page 277 and 278:
status en een auto betekent ook vri
Page 279 and 280:
Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
Page 281 and 282:
en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
Page 283 and 284:
afgerond, hadden ook een significan
Page 285 and 286:
om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
Page 288:
About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
Page 291 and 292:
4. On a rural road when driving str
Page 293 and 294:
they keep on walking in the same di
Page 295 and 296:
5. The driver drivers straight on a
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
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Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
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economic progress and world trade.
Page 304 and 305:
Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
Page 306 and 307:
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
Page 308 and 309:
MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
Page 310 and 311:
PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
Page 312 and 313:
SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
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