Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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and older learner drivers. From the difference in fixated overt latent hazards and mentioned overt latent hazards can be inferred that fixations overt latent hazards not necessarily imply that these hazards are recognized. In contrast to what was expected, older learner drivers did not have a significantly lower risk score on the risk assessment and action selection task than young learner drivers, but experienced drivers had a lower risk score on this task than young learner drivers. Statistical analysis revealed that the risk assessment and action selection task probably did not measure risk acceptance, but rather the same aspect of hazard perception that was measured by the hazard detection and recognition task, only not as good. The results indicate that the cognitive aspect of hazard anticipation most probably improve with experience. No evidence was found that the emotional and motivational aspect of hazard anticipation improves with age. However, the hypothesis that the emotional and motivational aspect of hazard anticipation predominantly improves with age cannot be rejected based on the results of this study, as this aspect of hazard anticipation most probably was not operationalized properly by the risk assessment and action selection task. Chapter 5 is on testing of hazard anticipation. In Chapter 4 hazard detection and recognition was measured using recorded eye fixations and recorded answers on open questions. This method is not suitable for mass testing. A variant of the hazard detection task was developed in which participants instead of fixating on overt latent and covert latent hazards in video clips, could point and click with their mouse on overt latent hazards and covert latent hazards. A different set of video clips was used than the video clips that were used in Chapter 4. As pointing and clicking with a mouse takes much more time than a saccade, the video clips were paused a couple of times per clip during five seconds to allow for pointing and clicking. The hazard assessment and action selection task was also slightly adapted. A different set of photographs was used and the task was made self-paced. Instead of responding orally after a photograph had been exposed for eight seconds and the screen had turned black, participants now could press on three keys (a key for 'brake', a key for 'release throttle' and a key for 'keep speed as it is') during the eight seconds the photograph was exposed on the screen. As the results of Chapter 4 indicated that the hazard detection and recognition task and the risk assessment and action selection task did not measure two distinct aspects of hazard anticipation, the hazard detection and recognition task was named more neutrally the 'video task' and the risk assessment and action selection task was named more neutrally the 'photo 267
task'. Three groups made the two tasks: learner drivers on the day they had passed the driving test, novice drivers that hold their driving licence for eighteen months and experienced drivers. With regard to the video task, there were no significant differences between the three groups in clicks on latent hazards (both on covert latent hazards and on overt latent hazards). This is remarkable because there was a significant difference with a large effect size in mentioned latent hazards between learner and experienced drivers in the hazard detection and recognition task of Chapter 4. There was no significant difference on the video task between novice drivers that had reported at least one crash and crash free novice drivers either. With regard to the photo task, there was a significant difference between learner drivers and novice drivers and between learner drivers and experienced drivers with the learner drivers having the highest risk scores. There was no significant difference in risk scores between novice drivers and experienced drivers. The magnitude of the difference between learner drivers and experienced drivers was relatively small and was about the same as between learner drivers and experienced drivers in the risk assessment and action selection task of Chapter 4. Controlled for exposure (defined as number times use was made of a car per week) novice drivers that had reported at least one crash had significantly higher risk score than crash free novice drivers. Both the lower risk scores for the crash free novice drivers and the higher risk scores for learner drivers compared to the risk scores of experienced drivers are indications that the photo task has criterion validity. The fact that the video task failed to discriminate between learner drivers and novice drivers on one hand and experienced drivers on the other hand could and also failed to discriminate between novice drivers who had reported a crash and crash free novice drivers, could have had various causes. Firstly, the animated video clips were far from perfect, the task was rather complex and participants could hardly familiarize. Secondly, it could be that clicking with a mouse was more of an effort for older drivers than for young drivers, as older drivers in general are not familiar with computer games. Thirdly, the pauses that were necessary to allow for sufficient time to point and click could have enabled learner drivers and novice drivers to detect latent hazards they had not yet detected while the video was running. The very fact that the video clip paused could have triggered participants that there could be latent hazards and the pause itself offered the time to detect and recognize these possible latent hazards. A new video task was developed. In this video task the latent hazards were less ambiguous, the quality of the videos was better and the videos were presented on a larger screen. The task was simplified and an introduction video clip was made to 268
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Hazard anticipation of young novice
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SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
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Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
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development of hazard perception te
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Table of contents 1. General introd
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1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
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27% of all driver fatalities were d
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eported 73 car crashes during the p
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with respondents that started their
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2. Determinants that influence haza
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planning of a trip, choice of the m
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that encompasses the entire second
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peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
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Figure 2.2. Model of the different
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Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
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Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
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When do these sex differences emerg
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Functional brain differences in boy
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oth groups had in common was their
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3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
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is less in these brain areas, but a
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2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
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deduced that car drivers younger th
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or little interference with the dri
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2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
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Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
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impact on road safety. Despite the
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condition for the older, more exper
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person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
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tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
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traffic situation is safe enough to
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2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
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58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
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100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
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less well equipped to detect and re
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3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
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Drivers are aware of hazards when t
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1. Possible other road users on col
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oriented and the vertical axis is t
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away from me, given the particular
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the task demands. The range of acce
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Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
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with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
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elatively high speed in the same di
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only associated with top-down activ
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information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
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3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
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driver does not think that she or h
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for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
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were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
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the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
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Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
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that cognitive aspects of hazard an
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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
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Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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latent hazards was higher than the
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Discussion about fixated latent haz
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mentioned latent hazards, young lea
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Gaze directions and fixation durati
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4.3.3. Relationship between the two
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selection task cannot be used to te
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Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
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more difficulties to detect and rec
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5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
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• The video task and the photo ta
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animation clips were made, each las
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The photo task Three experts on the
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5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
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5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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The effect size was small, η 2 P =
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action selection task of Chapter 4,
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3. Effect of interruptions The inte
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5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
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The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
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6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
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In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
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students, whereas participants that
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for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
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A screen capture of the centre scre
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Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
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Page 220 and 221: For the control group the opposite
Page 222 and 223: The combined three near transfer si
Page 224 and 225: training program was mostly on over
Page 226 and 227: 7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
Page 228 and 229: ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
Page 230 and 231: transport. It can also be status, a
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Page 234 and 235: performance in hazard detection and
Page 236 and 237: than both other groups. It is likel
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Page 240 and 241: hazards are a good indicator of som
Page 242 and 243: order to avoid attribution of an ex
Page 244 and 245: References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247: underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249: Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
Page 250 and 251: Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253: Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255: Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257: Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259: Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261: Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
Page 262 and 263: Summary Driving most of the times,
Page 264 and 265: Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
Page 266 and 267: framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
Page 270 and 271: prepare participants for the tasks.
Page 272: group than before the training and
Page 275 and 276: verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
Page 277 and 278: status en een auto betekent ook vri
Page 279 and 280: Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
Page 281 and 282: en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
Page 283 and 284: afgerond, hadden ook een significan
Page 285 and 286: om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
Page 288: About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
Page 291 and 292: 4. On a rural road when driving str
Page 293 and 294: they keep on walking in the same di
Page 295 and 296: 5. The driver drivers straight on a
Page 298 and 299: Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
Page 300 and 301: Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
Page 302 and 303: economic progress and world trade.
Page 304 and 305: Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
Page 306 and 307: Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
Page 308 and 309: MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
Page 310 and 311: PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
Page 312 and 313: SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
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