Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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oth groups had in common was their high scores on sensation seeking. Jonah (1997) reviewed forty studies on the relationship between sensation seeking and risky driving. In the vast majority of these studies there was a correlation of r = .30 to r = .40 between scores on sensation seeking and (selfreported) risky driving behaviour. Seven studies reported significant differences between high and low scores on sensation seeking and crash involvement. According to Zuckerman (1994) sensation seeking "is a trait defined by the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experience and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences" (p. 27). The sensation seeking scale of Zuckerman has four dimensions. These dimensions are: 1. Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS); 2. Experience Seeking (ES); 3. Boredom Susceptibility (BS), and 4. Disinhibition (Dis). The strongest relationship with risky driving behaviour was found with TAS (Jonah, 1997). As already mentioned in Section 2.3.2 (Figure 2.4), girls scored lower on a subset of questions of the sensation seeking questionnaire than boys (Romer & Hennessy, 2007). The peak in sensation seeking on this subset was for girls around 16 years of age and for boys around 18.5 years of age. After this peak, sensation seeking gradually decreased. Although Romer & Hennessy (2007) used a subset of questions of the sensation seeking questionnaire that was probably not age biased, one can argue that lifestyle may still be a confounding factor. However when using the Need Inventory of Sensation Seeking, a questionnaire in which respondents are not asked to agree or disagree with activities, but are asked for a global need of stimulation (e.g. 'I like feeling totally charged'), participants scored substantially lower the older they were (Roth, 2009). Sensation seeking is considered to be closely connected with the motivational brain circuitry. According to Chambers, Jane R. Taylor, & Potenza (2003) both dopamine pathways and serotonin pathways affect the motivational brain circuitry. Dopamine release into the striatum 5 operates like a general 'go' signal whereas serotonin has an inhibitory effect. CerebroSpinal Fluid (CSF) concentrations of dopamine and serotonin decline 5 The striatum is a sub cortical region that functions as an intermediate between the PFC and the basal ganglia and plays a role in both planning of movements and in executive functions. In humans the striatum is activated by stimuli associated with reward, but also by aversive, novel, unexpected or intense stimuli, and cues associated with such events. 39
during childhood and decrease near adult levels around age 16. Although both decrease, the rate of dopamine to serotonin increases throughout adolescence. In combination with a still immature PFC, this may promote sensation seeking. Because of maturation of the PFC, sensation seeking will finally decline despite there is proportional more dopamine than serotonin. Personality traits can be associated with subtle difference in brain structure. In a study conducted by Gardini, Cloninger, & Venneri (2009) eighty-five young adult participants completed the Thee-dimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) and had their brain imaged with MRI. The three scales of the TPQ are novelty seeking, harm avoidance and reward dependence. High scores on novelty seeking (a scale that is closely related to sensation seeking) were positively correlated with gray matter volumes in frontal and posterior cingulated areas. These areas are involved in directing visual attention to the periphery of the visual field and implicit attention. Novelty seeking implies not only a tendency for risky activities, but also preference for perceptually rich stimuli. Harm avoidance is a scale that also is relevant for road safety as cautious drivers have a lower crash rate than reckless drivers (Evans & Wasielewski, 1982). High scores on harm avoidance were negatively correlated with gray matter in the OFC. High scores on reward dependence that could have a relationship with susceptibility for peer pressure (see Section 2.4.2) and the preference for immediate rewards (e.g. the pleasure felt when driving fast is more important than the increased possibility of a crash when driving fast), were negatively correlated with gray matter in the striatum and the limbic areas. Instead of investigating the relationship between a certain specific personality trait and crash rates such as sensation seeking, one can also study the relationship between personality profiles and crash rate. In order to measure profiles, questionnaires are used that measure the dimensions of the 'big five' in personality traits. These dimensions are: 1. Openness to experience: Persons that are curious and that are open for new ideas score high on this scale. Other characteristics of a person that scores high on this scale are: mostly appreciates art, shows emotions and likes adventures; 2. Conscientiousness: Persons that score high on this scale have a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutiful and aim for achievement. They also like to plan their activities and do not often show spontaneous behaviour; 40
Page 1 and 2: Hazard anticipation of young novice
Page 3 and 4: SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
Page 5 and 6: Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
Page 7 and 8: development of hazard perception te
Page 10 and 11: Table of contents 1. General introd
Page 14 and 15: 1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
Page 16 and 17: 27% of all driver fatalities were d
Page 18 and 19: eported 73 car crashes during the p
Page 20 and 21: with respondents that started their
Page 22 and 23: 2. Determinants that influence haza
Page 24 and 25: planning of a trip, choice of the m
Page 26 and 27: that encompasses the entire second
Page 28 and 29: peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
Page 30 and 31: Figure 2.2. Model of the different
Page 32 and 33: Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
Page 36 and 37: When do these sex differences emerg
Page 38 and 39: Functional brain differences in boy
Page 42 and 43: 3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
Page 44 and 45: is less in these brain areas, but a
Page 46 and 47: 2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
Page 48 and 49: deduced that car drivers younger th
Page 50 and 51: or little interference with the dri
Page 52 and 53: 2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
Page 54 and 55: Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
Page 56 and 57: impact on road safety. Despite the
Page 58 and 59: condition for the older, more exper
Page 60 and 61: person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
Page 62 and 63: tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
Page 64 and 65: traffic situation is safe enough to
Page 66 and 67: 2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
Page 68 and 69: 58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
Page 70 and 71: 100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
Page 72: less well equipped to detect and re
Page 75 and 76: 3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
Page 77 and 78: Drivers are aware of hazards when t
Page 79 and 80: 1. Possible other road users on col
Page 81 and 82: oriented and the vertical axis is t
Page 83 and 84: away from me, given the particular
Page 85 and 86: the task demands. The range of acce
Page 87 and 88: Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
Page 89 and 90: with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
Page 91 and 92:
elatively high speed in the same di
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only associated with top-down activ
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information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
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3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
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driver does not think that she or h
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for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
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were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
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the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
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Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
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that cognitive aspects of hazard an
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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
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Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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latent hazards was higher than the
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Discussion about fixated latent haz
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mentioned latent hazards, young lea
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Gaze directions and fixation durati
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4.3.3. Relationship between the two
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selection task cannot be used to te
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Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
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more difficulties to detect and rec
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5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
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• The video task and the photo ta
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animation clips were made, each las
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The photo task Three experts on the
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5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
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5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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The effect size was small, η 2 P =
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action selection task of Chapter 4,
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3. Effect of interruptions The inte
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5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
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The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
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6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
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In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
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students, whereas participants that
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for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
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A screen capture of the centre scre
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Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
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latent hazards. This is not very su
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For the control group the opposite
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The combined three near transfer si
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training program was mostly on over
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7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
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ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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transport. It can also be status, a
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of this is an intervention in the a
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performance in hazard detection and
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than both other groups. It is likel
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etter scanning for latent hazards i
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hazards are a good indicator of som
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order to avoid attribution of an ex
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References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247:
underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249:
Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
Page 250 and 251:
Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253:
Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255:
Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257:
Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259:
Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261:
Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
Page 262 and 263:
Summary Driving most of the times,
Page 264 and 265:
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
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framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
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and older learner drivers. From the
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prepare participants for the tasks.
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group than before the training and
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verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
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status en een auto betekent ook vri
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Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
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en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
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afgerond, hadden ook een significan
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om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
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About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
Page 291 and 292:
4. On a rural road when driving str
Page 293 and 294:
they keep on walking in the same di
Page 295 and 296:
5. The driver drivers straight on a
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
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Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
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economic progress and world trade.
Page 304 and 305:
Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
Page 306 and 307:
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
Page 308 and 309:
MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
Page 310 and 311:
PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
Page 312 and 313:
SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
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