Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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deduced that car drivers younger than 25 years of age with lower vocational education had annually 12.5 self-reported car crashes per million kilometres driven. For the group of young drivers with secondary education but no academic education, this crash rate was 15.2 and for the group of young drivers with academic education this crash rate was 16.0. The differences between the groups were statistically not significant, F(2,4996) = 0.13, p = .87. The three groups did not differ in age (mean age in each group was 22), but the group with lower vocational education held their licence on average almost a year longer than the group with academic education. This might explain why academically educated novice drivers had a higher (although not significant) crash rate than novice drivers with lower vocational education. Considering the mentioned studies and the result of PROV, it seems that the level of general education may have a small impact on crash rate with higher levels of general education having a slightly lower crash rate, but the results are inconclusive. Driver training In contrast to what most people think, evaluation studies and meta-analyses have shown that formal basic driver training in order to pass the driving test does not result in a lower crash rate after licensing than informal training (learning to drive by self-training and training by family members or friends) (e.g. Christie, 2001; Elvik et al., 2009; Senserrick & Haworth, 2005). Driver training programs are difficult to evaluate with crash rate as the dependent variable, as crashes are rare (implying very big samples) and random assignment of participants to a control group and an experimental group is difficult to realize. However, Elvik et al. (2009) noted that a number of wellcontrolled studies have been carried out and especially these studies show no effect of formal basic driver training. Traditional driver training in order to pass the driving test is about vehicle handling, applying the rules of the road and mastering basic traffic situations. In traditional driver training not much attention is paid to the factors mentioned in Figure 2.1 such as hazard perception, risk assessment, risk acceptance, self-assessment, the effects of fatigue and distraction, etc., that cause the high crash rate of young novice drivers. It could be that future basic driver training in which these factors are addressed, will have a positive effect on the crash rate of young novice drivers after licensing. In the Netherlands, learner drivers cannot gain experience by driving with lay instructors such as parents before licensing. One can only drive with a certified driving instructor in order to train for the driving test. On average learners need 40 hours tuition behind the wheel from a certified driving 47
instructor to pass the driving test in the Netherlands (Hazevoet & Vissers, 2005). It is impossible to master a complicated task like driving in 40 hours fully. The high crash rate at the beginning of one's driving career and the steep decline of the crash rate in the first years after licensing (see Figure 1.3) seems to illustrate this. Based on a theory about three staged acquisition of motor skills by Fitts & Posner (1967), Anderson (1982) has developed a theory on the acquisition of cognitive skills. His theory is on cognitive skill acquisition in general, but can be applied to learning to drive. Anderson assumed that there are three stages in skill acquisition. These stages are: 'the declarative stage', the 'knowledge compilation stage' and the 'procedural stage'. At first (during the declarative stage), performance is relatively unstable, as possible strategies are tested and rejected. During this stage, the learner focuses consciously on isolated components of the driving task. For example, while learner drivers are in the declarative stage when they change gear (in a car with manual transmission), they have to think about each subtask step by step. For instance: 'First I step on the clutch pedal, and then I move the stick with my hand to the position of the next gear, after this I slowly release the clutch and in the meantime slowly push with my other foot on the accelerator.' Verbal mediation (sometimes spoken aloud) can help to perform the task at this first stage of skill acquisition. When a driver at this stage also has to perform another task not related to driving (for instance talking with a passenger), task performance on the driving task deteriorates considerably. After enough practice, one reaches the knowledge compilation stage. During this stage, elements of the skill get chunked together and verbal mediation of performance is far less. Associations between action patterns in familiar conditions have become stronger. Without a thorough analysis, familiar situations are recognized and a set of rules for that situation is applied. However, at this intermediate stage, a secondary task not related to the driving task, will still interfere with the driving task. Because the chunks of skill elements are not very elaborate yet and not always well suited to the situation, driving in the knowledge compilation stage still requires frequent monitoring and this can be hampered by the secondary task. Finally, after months to years of practicing the procedural stage is reached. At this stage, the parts have become compiled into procedures that are executed in a seemingly effortless manner without much awareness of the separate elements of the skill. Verbal mediation at this stage is very scarce and task performance is highly consistent. Learner drivers at this stage no longer need to think about the sequence of actions for gear shifting. Easy secondary tasks that are totally different from the driving task (for instance talking with a passenger) can be executed at this stage, without 48
Page 1 and 2: Hazard anticipation of young novice
Page 3 and 4: SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
Page 5 and 6: Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
Page 7 and 8: development of hazard perception te
Page 10 and 11: Table of contents 1. General introd
Page 14 and 15: 1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
Page 16 and 17: 27% of all driver fatalities were d
Page 18 and 19: eported 73 car crashes during the p
Page 20 and 21: with respondents that started their
Page 22 and 23: 2. Determinants that influence haza
Page 24 and 25: planning of a trip, choice of the m
Page 26 and 27: that encompasses the entire second
Page 28 and 29: peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
Page 30 and 31: Figure 2.2. Model of the different
Page 32 and 33: Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
Page 36 and 37: When do these sex differences emerg
Page 38 and 39: Functional brain differences in boy
Page 40 and 41: oth groups had in common was their
Page 42 and 43: 3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
Page 44 and 45: is less in these brain areas, but a
Page 46 and 47: 2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
Page 50 and 51: or little interference with the dri
Page 52 and 53: 2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
Page 54 and 55: Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
Page 56 and 57: impact on road safety. Despite the
Page 58 and 59: condition for the older, more exper
Page 60 and 61: person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
Page 62 and 63: tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
Page 64 and 65: traffic situation is safe enough to
Page 66 and 67: 2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
Page 68 and 69: 58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
Page 70 and 71: 100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
Page 72: less well equipped to detect and re
Page 75 and 76: 3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
Page 77 and 78: Drivers are aware of hazards when t
Page 79 and 80: 1. Possible other road users on col
Page 81 and 82: oriented and the vertical axis is t
Page 83 and 84: away from me, given the particular
Page 85 and 86: the task demands. The range of acce
Page 87 and 88: Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
Page 89 and 90: with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
Page 91 and 92: elatively high speed in the same di
Page 93 and 94: only associated with top-down activ
Page 95 and 96: information transformation processe
Page 97 and 98: (consciously) controlled action reg
Page 99 and 100:
on the left lane of a motorway (in
Page 101 and 102:
3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
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driver does not think that she or h
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for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
Page 113 and 114:
were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
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the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
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Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
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that cognitive aspects of hazard an
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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
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Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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latent hazards was higher than the
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Discussion about fixated latent haz
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mentioned latent hazards, young lea
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Gaze directions and fixation durati
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4.3.3. Relationship between the two
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selection task cannot be used to te
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Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
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more difficulties to detect and rec
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5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
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• The video task and the photo ta
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animation clips were made, each las
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The photo task Three experts on the
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5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
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5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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The effect size was small, η 2 P =
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action selection task of Chapter 4,
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3. Effect of interruptions The inte
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5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
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The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
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6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
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In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
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students, whereas participants that
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for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
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A screen capture of the centre scre
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Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
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latent hazards. This is not very su
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For the control group the opposite
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The combined three near transfer si
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training program was mostly on over
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7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
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ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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transport. It can also be status, a
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of this is an intervention in the a
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performance in hazard detection and
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than both other groups. It is likel
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etter scanning for latent hazards i
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hazards are a good indicator of som
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order to avoid attribution of an ex
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References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247:
underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249:
Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
Page 250 and 251:
Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253:
Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255:
Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257:
Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259:
Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261:
Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
Page 262 and 263:
Summary Driving most of the times,
Page 264 and 265:
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
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framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
Page 268 and 269:
and older learner drivers. From the
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prepare participants for the tasks.
Page 272:
group than before the training and
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verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
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status en een auto betekent ook vri
Page 279 and 280:
Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
Page 281 and 282:
en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
Page 283 and 284:
afgerond, hadden ook een significan
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om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
Page 288:
About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
Page 291 and 292:
4. On a rural road when driving str
Page 293 and 294:
they keep on walking in the same di
Page 295 and 296:
5. The driver drivers straight on a
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
Page 300 and 301:
Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
Page 302 and 303:
economic progress and world trade.
Page 304 and 305:
Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
Page 306 and 307:
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
Page 308 and 309:
MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
Page 310 and 311:
PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
Page 312 and 313:
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