Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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ehaviour could be the cause of unsafe acts. The framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (2002) is based on Norman and Shallice's model on willed and automatic control of behaviour (Norman & Shallice, 1986) and incorporates some elements of the zero-risk model on driver behaviour developed by Näätänen & Summala (1974). In contrast to Norman & Shallice, Brouwer & Schmidt make way for emotional and motivational processes in their framework and attention is not only manifest in the intervention of the Supervisory Attentional System (SAS) into the Contention Scheduler (CS), but also in processes of the CS itself. Brouwer & Schmidt (2002) also assume that action selection in complex cognitive tasks always is a mixture of automatic and controlled processing. The framework has been leading for the research on differences in hazard anticipation between young novice drivers, older novice drivers and experienced drivers that is presented in Chapter 4. The framework has also been used for the development of the simulator-based hazard perception training that is presented in Chapter 6. In the sections below, the key results of Chapter 2 to Chapter 6 are discussed. The last two sections of this thesis are about the practical implications of this thesis and possible future directions of research. 7.2. Young novice drivers Young novice drivers are overrepresented in car crashes. The young novice driver problem is a worldwide phenomenon and in the past decades, a plethora of causes has been reported. The fact is that the 'young driver problem' is not simply one, but rather a variety of multifaceted problems, for which there is no single solution. In Chapter 2 the causes are presented that are mentioned in the literature that may relate to hazard anticipation. These causes are presented on basis of a taxonomy that was developed for this purpose. With regard to the underlying causes that may affect hazard anticipation in this taxonomy, a distinction is made between: biological causes, social and cultural causes, acute impairments and exposure. 7.2.1. Biological aspects Our understanding of behaviour, and the brain based systems on which it relies, has developed considerably in the past twenty years. Because of new brain imaging techniques such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET), we now know that the brain is not fully matured before the age of 25, at least in males. Maturation is especially late in some areas of the Pre Frontal Cortex (PFC) such as the DorsoLateral 227
Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) and the Orbito Frontal Cortex (OFC). It is not so much the late maturation of these areas in itself, but rather the late maturation of these areas in combination with the earlier maturation of other brain areas, including the sub-cortical areas related to motivation and emotion such as the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens. The slowly maturing prefrontal systems are supposed to have an inhibitory function on emotional and motivational systems. It is thought that because of this imbalance young people are relatively speaking: impulsive, have an inclination towards sensation seeking, prefer immediate rewards, have a greater sensitivity to peer influences and find it difficult to plan ahead. Adolescents however, do not seem to be less rational than adults are when reflecting on their own capabilities. This is to say, both young drivers and middle-aged drivers tend to overestimate their own driving capabilities. Young drivers also do not underestimate known risks when they have the time to reflect on these risks. When asked for, they will tell that drinking and driving is dangerous. The problem is that although they know the risks (when asked for), at least some of them still will take the risks. Although both young female drivers and young male drivers are overrepresented in crashes, the young driver problem is predominantly a young male driver problem. The pace at which the volume of gray matter declines (until well into the third decade of life) and the volume of white matter increases (during the second decade of life), differs between young females and young males. Decrease in gray matter makes information processing more effective and increase in white matter makes information processing faster. Because of these differences in pace, young females mature earlier than young males. Not only the brain matures at a different pace in young females and in young males, also the hormonal regulation starts to differ considerably between boys and girls when they get into puberty. The effect of the different pace in brain development and differences in hormonal regulation affecting the cortical and sub-cortical areas, could explain the greater self-control over emotional behaviour and a lower tendency for sensation seeking in young females than in young males. 7.2.2. Social and cultural aspects of being young The social and cultural aspects of being young cannot be isolated from the biological aspects of being young. It is both 'nature' and 'nurture' and the interaction between the two. Motives for driving and having a car can be different for young drivers compared to middle-aged drivers and may differ across lifestyle groups. For many young drivers a car is not only a means of transport to travel from A to B without the inconveniences of public 228
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Hazard anticipation of young novice
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SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
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Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
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development of hazard perception te
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Table of contents 1. General introd
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1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
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27% of all driver fatalities were d
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eported 73 car crashes during the p
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with respondents that started their
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2. Determinants that influence haza
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planning of a trip, choice of the m
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that encompasses the entire second
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peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
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Figure 2.2. Model of the different
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Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
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Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
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When do these sex differences emerg
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Functional brain differences in boy
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oth groups had in common was their
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3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
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is less in these brain areas, but a
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2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
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deduced that car drivers younger th
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or little interference with the dri
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2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
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Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
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impact on road safety. Despite the
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condition for the older, more exper
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person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
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tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
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traffic situation is safe enough to
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2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
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58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
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100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
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less well equipped to detect and re
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3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
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Drivers are aware of hazards when t
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1. Possible other road users on col
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oriented and the vertical axis is t
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away from me, given the particular
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the task demands. The range of acce
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Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
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with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
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elatively high speed in the same di
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only associated with top-down activ
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information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
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3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
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driver does not think that she or h
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for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
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were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
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the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
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Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
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that cognitive aspects of hazard an
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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
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Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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latent hazards was higher than the
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Discussion about fixated latent haz
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mentioned latent hazards, young lea
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Gaze directions and fixation durati
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4.3.3. Relationship between the two
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selection task cannot be used to te
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Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
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more difficulties to detect and rec
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5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
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• The video task and the photo ta
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animation clips were made, each las
Page 178 and 179: The photo task Three experts on the
Page 180 and 181: 5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 182 and 183: 5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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Page 186 and 187: action selection task of Chapter 4,
Page 188 and 189: 3. Effect of interruptions The inte
Page 190 and 191: 5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 192 and 193: The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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Page 196 and 197: 6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
Page 198 and 199: al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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Page 204 and 205: In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
Page 206 and 207: students, whereas participants that
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Page 212 and 213: A screen capture of the centre scre
Page 214 and 215: Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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Page 220 and 221: For the control group the opposite
Page 222 and 223: The combined three near transfer si
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Page 226 and 227: 7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
Page 230 and 231: transport. It can also be status, a
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Page 236 and 237: than both other groups. It is likel
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Page 242 and 243: order to avoid attribution of an ex
Page 244 and 245: References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247: underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249: Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
Page 250 and 251: Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253: Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255: Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257: Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259: Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261: Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
Page 262 and 263: Summary Driving most of the times,
Page 264 and 265: Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
Page 266 and 267: framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
Page 268 and 269: and older learner drivers. From the
Page 270 and 271: prepare participants for the tasks.
Page 272: group than before the training and
Page 275 and 276: verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
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Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
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en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
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afgerond, hadden ook een significan
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om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
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About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
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4. On a rural road when driving str
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they keep on walking in the same di
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5. The driver drivers straight on a
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Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
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Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
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economic progress and world trade.
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Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
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Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
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MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
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PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
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SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
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