Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned covert latent hazards Mean percentage mentioned overt latent hazards 60 Percentage 50 40 30 20 10 0 Young learner drivers Older learner drivers Experienced drivers Figure 4.7. Mean percentage of mentioned covert latent hazards and mean percentage of mentioned overt latent hazards per group. Error bars indicate +/- 1 standard error. On average, young novice drivers mentioned 32.0% (SE = 4.1) of the covert latent hazards. This percentage was 36.8 (SE = 4.7) for older novice drivers and 62.4 (SE = 3.7) for experienced drivers. ANOVA demonstrated significant differences between the three groups and a large effect size with regard to the mentioned covert latent hazard, F(2,72) = 17.28, p < .001, η 2 P = .32. Post hoc Bonferroni tests showed that young learner drivers differed significantly from experienced drivers (p < .001) and older learner drivers differed significantly from experienced drivers (p < .001), but young learner drivers did not differ from older learner drivers (p = 1.0). These results with regard to covert latent hazards are in support of hypotheses 1 and 2 in Section 4.1.8 that cognitive aspects of hazard anticipation improve with increasing experience and not with age. On average young novice drivers mentioned 45.6% (SE = 3.5) of the overt latent hazards. This percentage was 47.4. (SE = 4.0) for older novice drivers and 70.0 (SE = 3.1) for experienced drivers. ANOVA demonstrated significant differences between the three groups and a large effect size with regard to the mentioned overt latent hazard, F(2,72) = 16.69, p < .001, η 2 P = .32. Post hoc Bonferroni tests showed that young learner drivers differed significantly from experienced drivers (p < .001) and older learner drivers differed significantly from experienced drivers (p < .001), but young learner drivers did not differ from older learner drivers (p = 1.0). These results with regard 151
to overt latent hazards are also in support of hypotheses 1 and 2 in Section 4.1.8 that cognitive aspects of hazard anticipation improve with increasing experience and not with age. As mentioned before, the groups did not differ in the percentages of fixated overt latent hazards. However, they did differ significantly in percentages of mentioned overt latent hazards. As already indicated, a fixated overt latent not necessarily implies that this latent hazard is recognized. In contrast, a mentioned overt latent hazard is always recognized. This could explain the different results between the groups in fixated overt latent hazards and mentioned overt latent hazards. In each group, the percentage of the mentioned overt latent hazards was higher than the percentage of the mentioned covert latent hazards. For young novice drivers and older novice drivers this difference was significant, respectively: t (24) = 4.53, p < .001, and t (18) = 2.04, p < .05. The difference between mentioned covert latent hazards and mentioned overt latent hazards was not significant for experienced drivers, t (30) = 1.83, p = .08. These results are in support of hypothesis 4 and 5 in Section 4.1.8 that inexperienced drivers have more problems with detecting and recognizing covert latent hazards than overt latent hazards, but that for experienced drivers there is no difference. Fixated latent hazards and mentioned latent hazards Table 4.3 shows the relationship between fixations (at least one fixation of at least 200 ms on the designated area within the timeframe of each latent hazard) and mentioned latent hazards. 152
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Hazard anticipation of young novice
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SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
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Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
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development of hazard perception te
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Table of contents 1. General introd
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1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
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27% of all driver fatalities were d
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eported 73 car crashes during the p
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with respondents that started their
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2. Determinants that influence haza
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planning of a trip, choice of the m
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that encompasses the entire second
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peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
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Figure 2.2. Model of the different
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Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
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Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
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When do these sex differences emerg
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Functional brain differences in boy
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oth groups had in common was their
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3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
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is less in these brain areas, but a
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2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
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deduced that car drivers younger th
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or little interference with the dri
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2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
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Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
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impact on road safety. Despite the
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condition for the older, more exper
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person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
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tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
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traffic situation is safe enough to
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2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
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58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
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100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
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less well equipped to detect and re
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3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
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Drivers are aware of hazards when t
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1. Possible other road users on col
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oriented and the vertical axis is t
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away from me, given the particular
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the task demands. The range of acce
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Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
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with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
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elatively high speed in the same di
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only associated with top-down activ
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information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
Page 101 and 102: 3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
Page 103 and 104: driver does not think that she or h
Page 105 and 106: for experienced drivers even in cir
Page 107 and 108: sound was heard) and some participa
Page 109 and 110: stage. In this stage, learners comm
Page 111 and 112: A theory that explains how we may l
Page 113 and 114: were about to turn left while their
Page 116 and 117: 4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
Page 118 and 119: hazards, drivers have to imagine a
Page 120 and 121: overview of their studies: McKenna
Page 122 and 123: with regard to the risk felt in the
Page 124 and 125: Participants were requested to pres
Page 126 and 127: of the visual acuity in the fovea.
Page 128 and 129: working memory. Both bottom-up proc
Page 130 and 131: without gaze control (the gray arro
Page 132 and 133: urban areas than on rural roads, no
Page 134 and 135: the right between the parked cars i
Page 136 and 137: that in the video clips no visible
Page 138 and 139: • Young learner drivers (age rang
Page 140 and 141: • Did you have moments that you t
Page 142 and 143: difference between overt latent haz
Page 144 and 145: 4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
Page 146 and 147: ecognition task, risk assessment an
Page 148 and 149: Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
Page 150 and 151: that cognitive aspects of hazard an
Page 154 and 155: Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
Page 156 and 157: latent hazards was higher than the
Page 158 and 159: Discussion about fixated latent haz
Page 160 and 161: mentioned latent hazards, young lea
Page 162 and 163: Gaze directions and fixation durati
Page 164 and 165: 4.3.3. Relationship between the two
Page 166 and 167: selection task cannot be used to te
Page 168 and 169: Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
Page 170 and 171: more difficulties to detect and rec
Page 172 and 173: 5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
Page 174 and 175: • The video task and the photo ta
Page 176 and 177: animation clips were made, each las
Page 178 and 179: The photo task Three experts on the
Page 180 and 181: 5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 182 and 183: 5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
Page 184 and 185: The effect size was small, η 2 P =
Page 186 and 187: action selection task of Chapter 4,
Page 188 and 189: 3. Effect of interruptions The inte
Page 190 and 191: 5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 192 and 193: The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
Page 194 and 195: ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
Page 196 and 197: 6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
Page 198 and 199: al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
Page 200 and 201: esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
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In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
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students, whereas participants that
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for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
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A screen capture of the centre scre
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Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
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latent hazards. This is not very su
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For the control group the opposite
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The combined three near transfer si
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training program was mostly on over
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7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
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ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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transport. It can also be status, a
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of this is an intervention in the a
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performance in hazard detection and
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than both other groups. It is likel
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etter scanning for latent hazards i
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hazards are a good indicator of som
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order to avoid attribution of an ex
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References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
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underlying reaction time to visual
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Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
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Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
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Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
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Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
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Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
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Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
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Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
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Summary Driving most of the times,
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Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
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framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
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and older learner drivers. From the
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prepare participants for the tasks.
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group than before the training and
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verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
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status en een auto betekent ook vri
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Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
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en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
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afgerond, hadden ook een significan
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om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
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About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
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4. On a rural road when driving str
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they keep on walking in the same di
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5. The driver drivers straight on a
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Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
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Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
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economic progress and world trade.
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Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
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Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
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MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
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PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
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