Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons are energetic, optimistic, out-going, self-confident and have a tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others; 4. Agreeableness: Persons that score high on agreeableness are friendly and compassionate. They are cooperative rather than suspicious; 5. Neuroticism: Persons that score high on this scale are sensitive and nervous. They feel insecure and vulnerable. Robins et al. (2001) found that from 18 to 22 years of age, the rank order of the scales of the big five of most participants in their study remained stable. This is to say that if for instance a participant had higher scores on conscientiousness than on neuroticism at 18 years of age, this participant had also higher scores on conscientiousness than on neuroticism at 22 years of age. However, the mean-levels on agreeableness and on conscientiousness increased from 18 to 22 years of age and the mean-level of neuroticism declined. Clarke & Robertson (2005) conducted a meta-analysis on the relationship between accident involvement (of all ages and not only car crashes) and the big five personality dimensions. Only low conscientiousness and low agreeableness correlated with accident involvement and these correlations although statistically significant were still rather weak. Agreeableness and conscientiousness are also the two scales of which Robins et al. (2001) had found that they increase from late adolescence to young adulthood. This could partly explain the lower crash rate of persons that start to drive in their twenties compared to people that start to drive at 18 years of age (see Figure 1.3). 2.3.4. Physical and mental constitution Young persons in general are in good health. Their visual acuity and reaction times are better than the visual acuity and reaction times of older persons. Young persons need less practice to acquire complex motor skills, including vehicle handling. The older one starts to learn to drive, the more hours of driving instruction are required to pass the driving test (Maycock & Forsyth, 1997). Although young people possess physical advantages over older people, some mental disorders have a higher prevalence in young people than in older people. Mental disorders that initially occur in childhood with a high prevalence in adolescence and that may continue in adulthood are various types of autism (Autism, Asperge Syndrome, Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Other Specified (PDD-NOS)) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In the Netherlands 7.8 % of men and 1.8 % of women between 18 and 24 years of aged are diagnosed as 41
having ADHD in some degree (De Graaf, Ten Have, & Van Dorsselaar, 2010). The exact prevalence of the various types of autism in the Netherlands is not known. In the UK 1.16 % of a cohort of 56946 children between 9 to 10 years of age was diagnosed as having some type of autism. The male to female ratio was 3.3:1 (Baird et al., 2006). The various types of autism are denoted as Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Individuals with ASD have difficulties in processing social information and do not communicate very well. Autistic children often show restricted and repetitive behaviour. ASD is the result of divergent brain development in which many parts of the brain and brain systems get affected. In order to anticipate future events, drivers have to predict what other road users in their vicinity will do. Drivers with ASD may have difficulties in doing this (due to difficulties in processing social information). Only one study on this subject could be found (Sheppard et al., 2010). In this study, the hypothesis was that drivers with ADS have poor hazard perception skills where the hazard is a human being (pedestrian or cyclist), but not where the hazard is a car (in which the driver is not visible). To test this hypothesis, adult participants (with and without ASD) watched video clips taken from the driver's point of view. In these clips, a hazard developed, but the clips never ended in a crash. Participants were asked to press a button as soon as they had detected a developing hazard. When the button was pressed, the screen froze and the participants were asked why they had pressed and what could happen in the clip. In half of the clips the hazard was a human being (pedestrian, bicyclist). These were the social hazards. And in half of the clips the hazard was a vehicle in which no person was visible (the instrumental hazards). Participants with ASD identified fewer social hazards than the comparison participants, but were not different in identifying instrumental hazards. When hazards (both social and instrumental) were identified, the reaction times of the ASD group were longer than of the comparison group. The slower reaction times can have been caused by poor hazard perception skills, but also by impaired strategic planning of motor skills of persons with ASD. Inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity are the main characteristics of ADHD. Neuropsychological findings suggest that these behaviours result from underlying deficits in executive functions such as deficits in response inhibition and delay aversion. The total brain volume of patients with ADHD is lower than that of matched controls. The differences in volume are the most pronounced in the PFC and the cerebellum. Not only the total volume 42
Page 1 and 2: Hazard anticipation of young novice
Page 3 and 4: SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
Page 5 and 6: Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
Page 7 and 8: development of hazard perception te
Page 10 and 11: Table of contents 1. General introd
Page 14 and 15: 1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
Page 16 and 17: 27% of all driver fatalities were d
Page 18 and 19: eported 73 car crashes during the p
Page 20 and 21: with respondents that started their
Page 22 and 23: 2. Determinants that influence haza
Page 24 and 25: planning of a trip, choice of the m
Page 26 and 27: that encompasses the entire second
Page 28 and 29: peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
Page 30 and 31: Figure 2.2. Model of the different
Page 32 and 33: Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
Page 36 and 37: When do these sex differences emerg
Page 38 and 39: Functional brain differences in boy
Page 40 and 41: oth groups had in common was their
Page 44 and 45: is less in these brain areas, but a
Page 46 and 47: 2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
Page 48 and 49: deduced that car drivers younger th
Page 50 and 51: or little interference with the dri
Page 52 and 53: 2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
Page 54 and 55: Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
Page 56 and 57: impact on road safety. Despite the
Page 58 and 59: condition for the older, more exper
Page 60 and 61: person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
Page 62 and 63: tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
Page 64 and 65: traffic situation is safe enough to
Page 66 and 67: 2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
Page 68 and 69: 58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
Page 70 and 71: 100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
Page 72: less well equipped to detect and re
Page 75 and 76: 3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
Page 77 and 78: Drivers are aware of hazards when t
Page 79 and 80: 1. Possible other road users on col
Page 81 and 82: oriented and the vertical axis is t
Page 83 and 84: away from me, given the particular
Page 85 and 86: the task demands. The range of acce
Page 87 and 88: Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
Page 89 and 90: with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
Page 91 and 92: elatively high speed in the same di
Page 93 and 94:
only associated with top-down activ
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information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
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3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
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driver does not think that she or h
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for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
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were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
Page 134 and 135:
the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
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Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
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that cognitive aspects of hazard an
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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
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Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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latent hazards was higher than the
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Discussion about fixated latent haz
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mentioned latent hazards, young lea
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Gaze directions and fixation durati
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4.3.3. Relationship between the two
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selection task cannot be used to te
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Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
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more difficulties to detect and rec
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5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
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• The video task and the photo ta
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animation clips were made, each las
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The photo task Three experts on the
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5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
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5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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The effect size was small, η 2 P =
Page 186 and 187:
action selection task of Chapter 4,
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3. Effect of interruptions The inte
Page 190 and 191:
5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
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The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
Page 196 and 197:
6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
Page 204 and 205:
In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
Page 206 and 207:
students, whereas participants that
Page 208 and 209:
for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
Page 212 and 213:
A screen capture of the centre scre
Page 214 and 215:
Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
Page 218 and 219:
latent hazards. This is not very su
Page 220 and 221:
For the control group the opposite
Page 222 and 223:
The combined three near transfer si
Page 224 and 225:
training program was mostly on over
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7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
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ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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transport. It can also be status, a
Page 232 and 233:
of this is an intervention in the a
Page 234 and 235:
performance in hazard detection and
Page 236 and 237:
than both other groups. It is likel
Page 238 and 239:
etter scanning for latent hazards i
Page 240 and 241:
hazards are a good indicator of som
Page 242 and 243:
order to avoid attribution of an ex
Page 244 and 245:
References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247:
underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249:
Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
Page 250 and 251:
Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253:
Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255:
Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257:
Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259:
Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261:
Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
Page 262 and 263:
Summary Driving most of the times,
Page 264 and 265:
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
Page 266 and 267:
framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
Page 268 and 269:
and older learner drivers. From the
Page 270 and 271:
prepare participants for the tasks.
Page 272:
group than before the training and
Page 275 and 276:
verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
Page 277 and 278:
status en een auto betekent ook vri
Page 279 and 280:
Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
Page 281 and 282:
en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
Page 283 and 284:
afgerond, hadden ook een significan
Page 285 and 286:
om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
Page 288:
About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
Page 291 and 292:
4. On a rural road when driving str
Page 293 and 294:
they keep on walking in the same di
Page 295 and 296:
5. The driver drivers straight on a
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
Page 300 and 301:
Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
Page 302 and 303:
economic progress and world trade.
Page 304 and 305:
Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
Page 306 and 307:
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
Page 308 and 309:
MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
Page 310 and 311:
PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
Page 312 and 313:
SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
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