Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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with respondents that started their driving career at different ages, Maycock et al. (1991) assessed that during the first years after licensing; the decrease in crash rate is for 59% due to experience, for 31% due to age factors and for 10% due to unknown factors. It could be that the younger the licensing age the larger the age effect on crash rate is. This could explain that a larger effect of age was found in the USA than in the UK and the Netherland, as the age limit is lower in the USA than in Europe. After having reviewed 11 recent studies on the effect of age and experience on crash rate, McCartt et al. (2009) concluded that the effect of experience on the decline of crash rate is somewhat stronger than the effect of age on that decline. 1.3. The problem Is there a relationship between the high crash rate of young novice drivers and poor hazard anticipation? This was the guiding question of the literature reviewed for this thesis. This question was also a research question of the research presented in Chapter 5. A second question was: if hazard anticipation improves with age and culminating experience, are there certain aspects of hazard anticipation that predominantly improve with experience and are there certain aspects of hazard anticipation that predominantly improve with age (i.e. maturation of the brain)? The high crash rate of young novice drivers is not a new problem. Studies on this topic in the past decades have been numerous. Hazard anticipation is not a new subject either and has also been studied thoroughly during the past thirty years. However, to date, a broad cognitive-neuropsychological approach on hazard anticipation and young novice drivers was missing. The word cognitive implies learning and neuropsychology implies (dis)ability (functions and impairments). In terms of learning, hazard anticipation is a skill that is mastered with culminating experience. In neuropsychological terms, hazard anticipation is an ability (e.g. weighing of risks) that improves as the brain matures with age. This thesis is intended to bridge the gap between cognitive psychology and neuropsychology with regard to hazard anticipation. Although the guiding questions were fundamental, this thesis primarily is an attempt to contribute to the applied sciences. In order to contribute to the applied sciences two questions were leading for the research conducted in this thesis. These two questions are: • Based on knowledge about cognitive-neuropsychological processes involved in hazard anticipation, can different aspects of hazard 19
anticipation be tested in such a way that these tests are suitable for incorporation in for example the driving test? • Based on the knowledge about the cognitive-neuropsychological processes involved in hazard anticipation, can hazard anticipation be trained? 1.4. Outline of the thesis The first three chapters (including this general introduction) provide an introduction, an overview of the 'young novice driver problem' and a theoretical framework of hazard anticipation. In Chapter 2, an overview is presented of factors that indirectly have an influence on how young novice drivers anticipate hazards in traffic. In Chapter 3, a cognitiveneuropsychological framework of hazard anticipation is introduced that has been the theoretical basis for the empirical studies reported in the Chapters 4, 5 and 6. In Chapter 4, an exploratory study about the differences between young novice drivers, older novice drivers and experienced drivers in hazard anticipation is presented and discussed. Based on the results of this exploratory study two hazard anticipation tests have been developed that are presented and evaluated in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 is about the development and evaluation of a simulator-based hazard anticipation training. In the last chapter of this thesis (Chapter 7), an overview of the key findings is provided and the results are discussed in the light of the theoretical framework (presented in Chapter 3). 20
Page 1 and 2: Hazard anticipation of young novice
Page 3 and 4: SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
Page 5 and 6: Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
Page 7 and 8: development of hazard perception te
Page 10 and 11: Table of contents 1. General introd
Page 14 and 15: 1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
Page 16 and 17: 27% of all driver fatalities were d
Page 18 and 19: eported 73 car crashes during the p
Page 22 and 23: 2. Determinants that influence haza
Page 24 and 25: planning of a trip, choice of the m
Page 26 and 27: that encompasses the entire second
Page 28 and 29: peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
Page 30 and 31: Figure 2.2. Model of the different
Page 32 and 33: Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
Page 36 and 37: When do these sex differences emerg
Page 38 and 39: Functional brain differences in boy
Page 40 and 41: oth groups had in common was their
Page 42 and 43: 3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
Page 44 and 45: is less in these brain areas, but a
Page 46 and 47: 2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
Page 48 and 49: deduced that car drivers younger th
Page 50 and 51: or little interference with the dri
Page 52 and 53: 2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
Page 54 and 55: Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
Page 56 and 57: impact on road safety. Despite the
Page 58 and 59: condition for the older, more exper
Page 60 and 61: person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
Page 62 and 63: tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
Page 64 and 65: traffic situation is safe enough to
Page 66 and 67: 2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
Page 68 and 69: 58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
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100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
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less well equipped to detect and re
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3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
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Drivers are aware of hazards when t
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1. Possible other road users on col
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oriented and the vertical axis is t
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away from me, given the particular
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the task demands. The range of acce
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Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
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with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
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elatively high speed in the same di
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only associated with top-down activ
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information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
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3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
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driver does not think that she or h
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for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
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were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
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the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
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Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
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that cognitive aspects of hazard an
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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
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Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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latent hazards was higher than the
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Discussion about fixated latent haz
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mentioned latent hazards, young lea
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Gaze directions and fixation durati
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4.3.3. Relationship between the two
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selection task cannot be used to te
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Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
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more difficulties to detect and rec
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5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
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• The video task and the photo ta
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animation clips were made, each las
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The photo task Three experts on the
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5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
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5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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The effect size was small, η 2 P =
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action selection task of Chapter 4,
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3. Effect of interruptions The inte
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5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
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The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
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6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
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In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
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students, whereas participants that
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for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
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A screen capture of the centre scre
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Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
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latent hazards. This is not very su
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For the control group the opposite
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The combined three near transfer si
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training program was mostly on over
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7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
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ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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transport. It can also be status, a
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of this is an intervention in the a
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performance in hazard detection and
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than both other groups. It is likel
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etter scanning for latent hazards i
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hazards are a good indicator of som
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order to avoid attribution of an ex
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References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
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underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249:
Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
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Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253:
Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255:
Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257:
Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259:
Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261:
Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
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Summary Driving most of the times,
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Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
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framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
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and older learner drivers. From the
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prepare participants for the tasks.
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group than before the training and
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verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
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status en een auto betekent ook vri
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Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
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en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
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afgerond, hadden ook een significan
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om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
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About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
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4. On a rural road when driving str
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they keep on walking in the same di
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5. The driver drivers straight on a
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Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
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Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
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economic progress and world trade.
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Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
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Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
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MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
Page 310 and 311:
PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
Page 312 and 313:
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