Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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When do these sex differences emerge? The total brain volume peaks in girls around age 10.5 and in boys around age 14.5. After this peak the decrease in total volume is somewhat stronger in females than in males (Lenroot et al., 2007). White matter increases throughout adolescence until middle adulthood with males having a slightly steeper rate of increase during adolescence (Lenroot & Giedd, 2010). Gray matter peaks for boys and girls at different ages in different lobes (see Section 2.3.1). After these peaks, the volume of gray matter declines (synaptic pruning). This decline is somewhat steeper in girls than in boys (Lenroot & Giedd, 2010). These different peaks and the subsequent decline in gray matter suggest that during the first years of adolescence girls are ahead in cortical maturation, but that this sex difference gradually disappears in the later stages of adolescence (around 16 years and older). Not only do the cortical areas develop at a different pace in boys and girls during adolescence, some of the subcortical regions show different patterns of development during adolescence as well. After a review of the literature Lenroot & Gied (2010) concluded that most consistently differences in development during adolescence have been reported for the basal ganglia, the hippocampus and the amygdala. The basal ganglia play an important role in action selection, procedural learning and movement control. The basal ganglia function in close cooperation with the PFC (the executive functions). In cooperation with the PFC, the basal ganglia influence motivational processes (cooperation between basal ganglia and cingulate cortex), social reactions (cooperation between basal ganglia and the OFC) and planning (cooperation between basal ganglia and the DLPFC) (see Brouwer & Schmidt, 2002 for an overview). In cooperation with the hippocampus, the amygdala performs a primary role in the formation, storage and recall of memories associated with emotional events (McGaugh, 2000; McGaugh, McIntyre, & Power, 2002). It would seem likely that the subtle differences in development between girls and boys during adolescence are related to the different neuroendocrine processes in boys and girls during puberty. According to Paus (2009) it is difficult to ascertain that this relation exists as the age-related changes in hormone levels are very complex. However, Lenroot & Giedd (2010) noted that although a direct causal relation is difficult to proof, there are some associations between sex steroid levels and the development of certain brain regions. Different brain regions have a different number of sex steroid receptors. Brain regions that show a different pattern of maturation in boys and girls during adolescence also show differences in populations of sex steroid receptors with more oestrogens receptors in brain regions that are larger in females and more androgen receptors in brain regions that are larger in males. 35
Research suggests that dopaminergic activity peaks during adolescence and that dopaminergic activity potentially fuels an increase in sensation seeking (Chambers et al., 2003; Spear, 2000). Scores on the sensation seeking questionnaire developed by Zuckerman, Eysenck, & Eysenck (1978) correlate with risky driving behaviour and even with crash involvement (see Section 2.3.3). Romer & Hennessy (2007) found that throughout adolescence the scores on a subset of four questions of the sensation seeking questionnaire (I like to explore strange places; I like to do frightening things; I like new and exciting experiences, even if I have to break the rules, and I prefer friends who are exciting and unpredictable) were higher for boys than for girls, but that the peak in sensation seeking was earlier for girls than for boys (see Figure 2.4). The maximum was for boys at age 18.5 and for girls at age 16. In contrast with most questions of the sensation seeking questionnaire, the subset of questions used by Romer & Hennessy (2007) is not 'age biased'. When for instance asked to agree or disagree with the statement 'I like 'wild' uninhibited parties', people can change their opinion as they grow older not because of a decline in sensation seeking but because parties no longer are part of their lifestyle. 2.9 2.8 2.7 Sensation seeking 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 Male Female Prediction (Male) Prediction (Female) 2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Age Figure 2.4. Sensation seeking as a function of age and gender (adapted from Romer & Hennessy, 2007). 36
Page 1 and 2: Hazard anticipation of young novice
Page 3 and 4: SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
Page 5 and 6: Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
Page 7 and 8: development of hazard perception te
Page 10 and 11: Table of contents 1. General introd
Page 14 and 15: 1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
Page 16 and 17: 27% of all driver fatalities were d
Page 18 and 19: eported 73 car crashes during the p
Page 20 and 21: with respondents that started their
Page 22 and 23: 2. Determinants that influence haza
Page 24 and 25: planning of a trip, choice of the m
Page 26 and 27: that encompasses the entire second
Page 28 and 29: peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
Page 30 and 31: Figure 2.2. Model of the different
Page 32 and 33: Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
Page 34 and 35: Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
Page 38 and 39: Functional brain differences in boy
Page 40 and 41: oth groups had in common was their
Page 42 and 43: 3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
Page 44 and 45: is less in these brain areas, but a
Page 46 and 47: 2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
Page 48 and 49: deduced that car drivers younger th
Page 50 and 51: or little interference with the dri
Page 52 and 53: 2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
Page 54 and 55: Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
Page 56 and 57: impact on road safety. Despite the
Page 58 and 59: condition for the older, more exper
Page 60 and 61: person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
Page 62 and 63: tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
Page 64 and 65: traffic situation is safe enough to
Page 66 and 67: 2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
Page 68 and 69: 58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
Page 70 and 71: 100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
Page 72: less well equipped to detect and re
Page 75 and 76: 3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
Page 77 and 78: Drivers are aware of hazards when t
Page 79 and 80: 1. Possible other road users on col
Page 81 and 82: oriented and the vertical axis is t
Page 83 and 84: away from me, given the particular
Page 85 and 86: the task demands. The range of acce
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Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
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with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
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elatively high speed in the same di
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only associated with top-down activ
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information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
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3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
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driver does not think that she or h
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for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
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were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
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the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
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Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
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that cognitive aspects of hazard an
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80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
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Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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latent hazards was higher than the
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Discussion about fixated latent haz
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mentioned latent hazards, young lea
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Gaze directions and fixation durati
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4.3.3. Relationship between the two
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selection task cannot be used to te
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Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
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more difficulties to detect and rec
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5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
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• The video task and the photo ta
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animation clips were made, each las
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The photo task Three experts on the
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5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
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5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
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The effect size was small, η 2 P =
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action selection task of Chapter 4,
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3. Effect of interruptions The inte
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5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
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The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
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ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
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6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
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esources to vehicle control (steeri
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of the University of Massachusetts
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In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
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students, whereas participants that
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for the training were based on thos
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6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
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A screen capture of the centre scre
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Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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at least sixteen of the nineteen si
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latent hazards. This is not very su
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For the control group the opposite
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The combined three near transfer si
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training program was mostly on over
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7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
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ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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transport. It can also be status, a
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of this is an intervention in the a
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performance in hazard detection and
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than both other groups. It is likel
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etter scanning for latent hazards i
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hazards are a good indicator of som
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order to avoid attribution of an ex
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References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247:
underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249:
Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
Page 250 and 251:
Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253:
Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255:
Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257:
Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259:
Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261:
Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
Page 262 and 263:
Summary Driving most of the times,
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Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
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framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
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and older learner drivers. From the
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prepare participants for the tasks.
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group than before the training and
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verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
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status en een auto betekent ook vri
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Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
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en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
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afgerond, hadden ook een significan
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om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
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About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
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4. On a rural road when driving str
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they keep on walking in the same di
Page 295 and 296:
5. The driver drivers straight on a
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Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
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Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
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economic progress and world trade.
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Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
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Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
Page 308 and 309:
MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
Page 310 and 311:
PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
Page 312 and 313:
SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
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