Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

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al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley, 2000). This was 'Driver Zed' developed by the Foundation for Traffic Safety (AAA) in the United States and 'Drive Smart' developed at the Monash University Accident Research Centre in Australia. Driver Zed consists of various modules. In the training module 'scan', video clips taken from the driver's perspective are presented on the screen. When the video stops questions are asked about what had happened so far in the video. In the module 'spot' videos (also from the driver's perspective) are paused and participants have to click with their mouse on overt latent hazards on the frozen video frame (e.g. a child playing with a ball on the pavement). In the module 'act' the videos pause just as in 'spot' and questions are asked about what the driver best can do in this situation. Finally, in the module 'drive' trainees have to decide when action is required and what the action should be. The modules in Drive Smart are called 'scan', 'keep ahead' and 'play safe' (skaps). In Drive Smart videos from the driver's perspective are used in the same way as in Driver Zed. In contrast to Driver Zed, Drive Smart also pays attention to calibration, the ability to prioritize attention and time-sharing. Two weeks after having completed Driver Zed, participants drove more cautiously in a simulator and anticipated latent hazards better (i.e. they reduced speed in situations with latent hazards) than untrained drivers (Fisher et al., 2002). One week after having completed Drive Smart, the treatment group and a control group drove in a simulator. This simulator drive contained sixteen near transfer hazardous situations and sixteen far transfer hazardous situations. In seven out of the sixteen near transfer situations the treatment group anticipated the hazards significantly better than the control group. Differences between the groups were considered as significant when p < .10. In none of the sixteen near transfer situations the control group anticipated the hazards significantly better than the treatment group. In eight out of the sixteen far transfer situations the treatment group anticipated the hazards significantly better than the control group. In none of the sixteen far transfer situations the control group anticipated the hazards better than the treatment group. Four weeks later the two groups drove the same test simulator drive again. The results were the same (Regan et al., 2000). Both, in Driver Zed and in Drive Smart no distinction is made between overt latent hazards and covert latent hazards. In Driver Zed none of the hazards in the video clips is a covert latent hazard and in Drive Smart some are covert hazards. Despite the fact that there are no clear covert hazards in the training scenarios of Driver Zed, Fisher et al. (2002) found that participants that had completed Driver Zed, braked more often in situations 197
with covert latent hazards during the transfer drive on a simulator than participants in the control group did. 6.1.2. Studies on hazard anticipation training McKenna & Crick (1997) developed a training program on hazard perception. This program of four hours was spread out over a period of three weeks. The training consisted of a classroom session, group video watching and one-to-one tutoring with video clips. In a second experiment it was found that only the one-to-one tutoring with video clips was effective. In these sessions, a participant and a driving instructor watched together videos from the driver's perspective. The driving instructor froze the videos at moments that hazards started to develop and then encouraged the participant to generate predictions about the development of possible hazards. To measure the effect of the training, the reaction latency test was used (see Section 4.1.3). Trained novice drivers had significantly shorter reaction times than untrained novice drivers and the reaction times of the trained novice drivers were about the same as the reaction times of the experienced drivers. In a more recent experiment, participants were only asked to generate verbal commentaries as they viewed the videos and had to listen to the commentary of experts while they watched the videos (McKenna et al., 2006). This simple training using commentary only, also resulted in shorter reaction times. The fact that participants had attended the training course did not make them more confident of their driving skills and no behavioural adaptation resulting in more risk taking was found. This is remarkable as short driver training programs in special skills such as skid training seem to have this adverse effect (see for a meta analysis: Elvik et al., 2009, pp. 781-785). This is to say that crash rate increases after the training. Gregersen (1996) presumed that short training programs in special skills increases self-confidence and self-efficacy although the special skills are not fully mastered. This false believe in superiority because of the training subsequently results in more risk taking. The method of verbal commentary while watching videos from the driver's perspective was also used in a training program to improve the hazard perception skill of novice drivers that was developed by Isler, Starkey, & Williamson (2009). The test used in this study to measure the effect, differed from the reaction time test that was developed by McKenna & Crick (1997). While watching the videos from the driver's perspective, participants had to perform a secondary task. This secondary task was a tracking task that was projected in the centre of the screen. In contrast to driving in real traffic, drives do not have to allocate part of their cognitive 198
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Hazard anticipation of young novice
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SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
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Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
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development of hazard perception te
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Table of contents 1. General introd
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1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
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27% of all driver fatalities were d
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eported 73 car crashes during the p
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with respondents that started their
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2. Determinants that influence haza
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planning of a trip, choice of the m
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that encompasses the entire second
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peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
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Figure 2.2. Model of the different
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Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
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Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
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When do these sex differences emerg
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Functional brain differences in boy
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oth groups had in common was their
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3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
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is less in these brain areas, but a
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2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
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deduced that car drivers younger th
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or little interference with the dri
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2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
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Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
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impact on road safety. Despite the
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condition for the older, more exper
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person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
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tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
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traffic situation is safe enough to
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2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
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58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
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100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
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less well equipped to detect and re
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3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
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Drivers are aware of hazards when t
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1. Possible other road users on col
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oriented and the vertical axis is t
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away from me, given the particular
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the task demands. The range of acce
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Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
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with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
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elatively high speed in the same di
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only associated with top-down activ
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information transformation processe
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(consciously) controlled action reg
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on the left lane of a motorway (in
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3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
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driver does not think that she or h
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for experienced drivers even in cir
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sound was heard) and some participa
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stage. In this stage, learners comm
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A theory that explains how we may l
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were about to turn left while their
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4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
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hazards, drivers have to imagine a
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overview of their studies: McKenna
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with regard to the risk felt in the
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Participants were requested to pres
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of the visual acuity in the fovea.
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working memory. Both bottom-up proc
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without gaze control (the gray arro
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urban areas than on rural roads, no
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the right between the parked cars i
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that in the video clips no visible
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• Young learner drivers (age rang
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• Did you have moments that you t
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difference between overt latent haz
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4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
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ecognition task, risk assessment an
Page 148 and 149: Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
Page 150 and 151: that cognitive aspects of hazard an
Page 152 and 153: 80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
Page 154 and 155: Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
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Page 158 and 159: Discussion about fixated latent haz
Page 160 and 161: mentioned latent hazards, young lea
Page 162 and 163: Gaze directions and fixation durati
Page 164 and 165: 4.3.3. Relationship between the two
Page 166 and 167: selection task cannot be used to te
Page 168 and 169: Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
Page 170 and 171: more difficulties to detect and rec
Page 172 and 173: 5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
Page 174 and 175: • The video task and the photo ta
Page 176 and 177: animation clips were made, each las
Page 178 and 179: The photo task Three experts on the
Page 180 and 181: 5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 182 and 183: 5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
Page 184 and 185: The effect size was small, η 2 P =
Page 186 and 187: action selection task of Chapter 4,
Page 188 and 189: 3. Effect of interruptions The inte
Page 190 and 191: 5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 192 and 193: The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
Page 194 and 195: ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
Page 196 and 197: 6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
Page 200 and 201: esources to vehicle control (steeri
Page 202 and 203: of the University of Massachusetts
Page 204 and 205: In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
Page 206 and 207: students, whereas participants that
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Page 210 and 211: 6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
Page 212 and 213: A screen capture of the centre scre
Page 214 and 215: Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
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Page 220 and 221: For the control group the opposite
Page 222 and 223: The combined three near transfer si
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Page 226 and 227: 7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1.
Page 228 and 229: ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
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Page 236 and 237: than both other groups. It is likel
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Page 240 and 241: hazards are a good indicator of som
Page 242 and 243: order to avoid attribution of an ex
Page 244 and 245: References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247: underlying reaction time to visual
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Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
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Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
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Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
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Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
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Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
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Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
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Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
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Summary Driving most of the times,
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Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
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framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
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and older learner drivers. From the
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prepare participants for the tasks.
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group than before the training and
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verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
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status en een auto betekent ook vri
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Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
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en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
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afgerond, hadden ook een significan
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om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
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About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
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4. On a rural road when driving str
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they keep on walking in the same di
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5. The driver drivers straight on a
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Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
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Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
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economic progress and world trade.
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Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
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Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
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MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
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PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
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SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
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