Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

More documents

Recommendations

Info

7. Discussion and conclusions 7.1. Hazard anticipation and driving This thesis is on hazard anticipation of young novice drivers. Hazard anticipation is defined as: The detection and recognition of road and traffic situations that could increase the possibilities of a crash, including the prediction of how these situations can develop into acute threats. The feelings of risk that are evoked by these predictions and the execution of actions that will reduce the feelings of risk and will ensure a safety margin that is large enough to avert a crash should the latent hazard materialize. Hazard anticipation can range from 'automatic’ to 'controlled’. Although in the definition hazard anticipation is decomposed into various processes, it is assumed to be one holistic process that especially experienced drivers perform on the procedural stage without or with little conscious awareness. This implies that for experienced drivers most of the times hazard anticipation is automatic. The subject of this thesis is not hazard anticipation, but hazard anticipation of young novice drivers. The objective of this thesis is to investigate how well young novice drivers anticipate latent hazards and what influences culminating driving experience and maturation of in particular the brain have on hazard anticipation. Besides this theoretical objective, there are two applied objectives. These objectives are: (1) to explore ways to test hazard anticipation that are suitable for mass testing (e.g. in the theory test of the driving test) and (2) to investigate the possibility to train hazard anticipation in a driving simulator environment. 225
In this thesis, hazard anticipation is conceived as a precondition to perform adequately on what Michon (1985) has defined as the tactical level of the driving task. On the tactical level, drivers choose their speed and headway in changing traffic situations. They more or less automatically take certain risks when dealing with traffic situations (e.g. 'Shall I overtake that slow driving car in front of me?' or 'Is the gap wide enough to turn left?'). Both of what is usually called hazard perception and the over representation of young novice drivers in crashes, are not new topics in traffic psychology. In the past decades a vast amount of studies have been devoted to the novice driver problem and poor hazard perception has often been mentioned as one of the causes of the high crash rate of young novice drivers. Indeed, more than once an association has been found between poor performance on a hazard perception task by mostly young novice drivers and crash involvement (Congdon, 1999; Darby et al., 2009; McKenna & Horswill, 1999; Pelz & Krupat, 1974; Quimby et al., 1986; Wells et al., 2008). To date however, poor hazard anticipation has been viewed either as a cognitive problem (i.e. not having the skill to detect, to recognize and to predict hazards) or as motivational problem in terms of poor risk assessment, poor self-assessment and the acceptance of high levels of risks. In this thesis, an attempt is made to bridge the two different views. In order to do this the phenomenon of hazard anticipation has been approached from a cognitiveneuropsychological perspective. The key concept in this approach is mental representation or schema. While driving schemata unfold in interaction with external stimuli (i.e. what the driver perceives) and internal stimuli (i.e. what the driver feels), the selected dominant schemata enable the driver to find valid cues in the road and traffic situation and to anticipate forthcoming events. Activation and inhibition of schemata and action selection most of the times happen automatically, especially when the driver is an experienced driver. Sometimes selection of schemata is controlled. To explain in more detail how drivers anticipate hazards the framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (2002) is applied. This framework was originally developed to provide insight in the multiple causation of sometimes aberrant (driving) behaviours dependent on underlying (brain) disorders and differences in expertise. The framework describes the hypothetical sub-processes that are involved in action selection by drivers and the interaction between these sub-processes. Errors or omissions in action selection by drivers with mild Alzheimer's disease could for example be the result of slow information processing of content information and limited working memory capacity. On the other hand in patients with mild frontotemporal dementia poor monitoring of the risks involved in road and traffic situations and impaired inhibition of unsafe 226
Page 1 and 2:
Hazard anticipation of young novice
Page 3 and 4:
SWOV-Dissertatiereeks, Leidschendam
Page 5 and 6:
Promotores: Prof. dr. W.H. Brouwer
Page 7 and 8:
development of hazard perception te
Page 10 and 11:
Table of contents 1. General introd
Page 14 and 15:
1. General introduction 1.1. Hazard
Page 16 and 17:
27% of all driver fatalities were d
Page 18 and 19:
eported 73 car crashes during the p
Page 20 and 21:
with respondents that started their
Page 22 and 23:
2. Determinants that influence haza
Page 24 and 25:
planning of a trip, choice of the m
Page 26 and 27:
that encompasses the entire second
Page 28 and 29:
peaks at 16.7 years of age in girls
Page 30 and 31:
Figure 2.2. Model of the different
Page 32 and 33:
Keating (2007) mentioned the matura
Page 34 and 35:
Table 2.1. Relative fatality ratios
Page 36 and 37:
When do these sex differences emerg
Page 38 and 39:
Functional brain differences in boy
Page 40 and 41:
oth groups had in common was their
Page 42 and 43:
3. Extroversion: Extrovert persons
Page 44 and 45:
is less in these brain areas, but a
Page 46 and 47:
2.4.2. Peer group influences In ado
Page 48 and 49:
deduced that car drivers younger th
Page 50 and 51:
or little interference with the dri
Page 52 and 53:
2.4.4. Socioeconomic and cultural b
Page 54 and 55:
Preusser, 2002). The crash rate of
Page 56 and 57:
impact on road safety. Despite the
Page 58 and 59:
condition for the older, more exper
Page 60 and 61:
person (e.g. a passenger or a pedes
Page 62 and 63:
tasks was 3.10, 95% CI [1.73, 5.47]
Page 64 and 65:
traffic situation is safe enough to
Page 66 and 67:
2.6.1. Exposure In Section 1.2, the
Page 68 and 69:
58 56 Male Drivers Female Drivers S
Page 70 and 71:
100 Killed car occupants aged 18-24
Page 72:
less well equipped to detect and re
Page 75 and 76:
3.2. Hazard anticipation A hazard i
Page 77 and 78:
Drivers are aware of hazards when t
Page 79 and 80:
1. Possible other road users on col
Page 81 and 82:
oriented and the vertical axis is t
Page 83 and 84:
away from me, given the particular
Page 85 and 86:
the task demands. The range of acce
Page 87 and 88:
Figure 3.4. Zero-risk model (Näät
Page 89 and 90:
with FTD, poor monitoring of the ri
Page 91 and 92:
elatively high speed in the same di
Page 93 and 94:
only associated with top-down activ
Page 95 and 96:
information transformation processe
Page 97 and 98:
(consciously) controlled action reg
Page 99 and 100:
on the left lane of a motorway (in
Page 101 and 102:
3.7.1, 3.7.2 and 3.7.3. This is don
Page 103 and 104:
driver does not think that she or h
Page 105 and 106:
for experienced drivers even in cir
Page 107 and 108:
sound was heard) and some participa
Page 109 and 110:
stage. In this stage, learners comm
Page 111 and 112:
A theory that explains how we may l
Page 113 and 114:
were about to turn left while their
Page 116 and 117:
4. Hazard anticipation, age and exp
Page 118 and 119:
hazards, drivers have to imagine a
Page 120 and 121:
overview of their studies: McKenna
Page 122 and 123:
with regard to the risk felt in the
Page 124 and 125:
Participants were requested to pres
Page 126 and 127:
of the visual acuity in the fovea.
Page 128 and 129:
working memory. Both bottom-up proc
Page 130 and 131:
without gaze control (the gray arro
Page 132 and 133:
urban areas than on rural roads, no
Page 134 and 135:
the right between the parked cars i
Page 136 and 137:
that in the video clips no visible
Page 138 and 139:
• Young learner drivers (age rang
Page 140 and 141:
• Did you have moments that you t
Page 142 and 143:
difference between overt latent haz
Page 144 and 145:
4.2.3. Procedure On arrival, the ex
Page 146 and 147:
ecognition task, risk assessment an
Page 148 and 149:
Table 4.1. Percentage of the partic
Page 150 and 151:
that cognitive aspects of hazard an
Page 152 and 153:
80 70 Mean percentage mentioned cov
Page 154 and 155:
Table 4.3. Percentages of latent ha
Page 156 and 157:
latent hazards was higher than the
Page 158 and 159:
Discussion about fixated latent haz
Page 160 and 161:
mentioned latent hazards, young lea
Page 162 and 163:
Gaze directions and fixation durati
Page 164 and 165:
4.3.3. Relationship between the two
Page 166 and 167:
selection task cannot be used to te
Page 168 and 169:
Underwood, Chapman et al. (2002) an
Page 170 and 171:
more difficulties to detect and rec
Page 172 and 173:
5. Testing hazard anticipation, an
Page 174 and 175:
• The video task and the photo ta
Page 176 and 177: animation clips were made, each las
Page 178 and 179: The photo task Three experts on the
Page 180 and 181: 5.2.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 182 and 183: 5.2.6. Overt and covert latent haza
Page 184 and 185: The effect size was small, η 2 P =
Page 186 and 187: action selection task of Chapter 4,
Page 188 and 189: 3. Effect of interruptions The inte
Page 190 and 191: 5.3.3. Procedure Participants were
Page 192 and 193: The mean click score was M = 7.7 (S
Page 194 and 195: ottom-up gaze control (the tractor
Page 196 and 197: 6. Simulator-based hazard anticipat
Page 198 and 199: al., 2002; Regan, Triggs, & Godley,
Page 200 and 201: esources to vehicle control (steeri
Page 202 and 203: of the University of Massachusetts
Page 204 and 205: In contrast, Ivancic & Hesketh (200
Page 206 and 207: students, whereas participants that
Page 208 and 209: for the training were based on thos
Page 210 and 211: 6.2.3. Training intervention SimRAP
Page 212 and 213: A screen capture of the centre scre
Page 214 and 215: Table 6.2. (continued) critical sit
Page 216 and 217: at least sixteen of the nineteen si
Page 218 and 219: latent hazards. This is not very su
Page 220 and 221: For the control group the opposite
Page 222 and 223: The combined three near transfer si
Page 224 and 225: training program was mostly on over
Page 228 and 229: ehaviour could be the cause of unsa
Page 230 and 231: transport. It can also be status, a
Page 232 and 233: of this is an intervention in the a
Page 234 and 235: performance in hazard detection and
Page 236 and 237: than both other groups. It is likel
Page 238 and 239: etter scanning for latent hazards i
Page 240 and 241: hazards are a good indicator of som
Page 242 and 243: order to avoid attribution of an ex
Page 244 and 245: References Abelson, R.P. (1981). Ps
Page 246 and 247: underlying reaction time to visual
Page 248 and 249: Darby, P., Murray, W. & Raeside, R.
Page 250 and 251: Fuller, R. (2007b). Motivational de
Page 252 and 253: Irwin, D.E. (2004). Fixation locati
Page 254 and 255: Louwerens, J.W., Gloerich, A.B.M.,
Page 256 and 257: Murray, Å. (1998). The home and sc
Page 258 and 259: Roth, M. (2009). Social support as
Page 260 and 261: Ulleberg, P. (2001). Personality su
Page 262 and 263: Summary Driving most of the times,
Page 264 and 265: Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADH
Page 266 and 267: framework of Brouwer & Schmidt (200
Page 268 and 269: and older learner drivers. From the
Page 270 and 271: prepare participants for the tasks.
Page 272: group than before the training and
Page 275 and 276: verkeer. Het probleem van de jonge
Page 277 and 278:
status en een auto betekent ook vri
Page 279 and 280:
Belangrijk is dat zowel bij zichtba
Page 281 and 282:
en ervaren bestuurders (Huestegge e
Page 283 and 284:
afgerond, hadden ook een significan
Page 285 and 286:
om hun veiligheidsmarge te vergrote
Page 288:
About the author Willem Vlakveld wa
Page 291 and 292:
4. On a rural road when driving str
Page 293 and 294:
they keep on walking in the same di
Page 295 and 296:
5. The driver drivers straight on a
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 3 Additional latent hazard
Page 300 and 301:
Appendix 4 Glossary of abbreviation
Page 302 and 303:
economic progress and world trade.
Page 304 and 305:
Appendix 5 Glossary on brain issues
Page 306 and 307:
Gonadotropin releasing hormone Gray
Page 308 and 309:
MEG Motor cortex MRI Myelination Ne
Page 310 and 311:
PFC Serotonin Striatum Synaptic pru
Page 312 and 313:
SWOV-Dissertatiereeks In deze reeks
show all

Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers - SWOV

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?