The Future of Smallholder Farming in Eastern Africa - Uganda ...

and Gichuki 1994). In the 1940s, the colonial authorities organized compulsory terracing
programs, led by chiefs, government officials, or those whom the government regarded as
elders. Most likely, these activities generated new information about the effectiveness of
terracing for soil conservation. These activities are likely to have had more impact in
Machakos than in Taita-Taveta because Machakos has a higher population density and is
closer to Nairobi and to the Kenya highlands. 19 Other exogenous learning shocks were World
War I and II, with Akamba soldiers returning home with new ideas from other countries.
Terrace construction also started much earlier in Machakos than in Taita-Taveta, so there was
more time for the technology to spread from farmer to farmer. This is probably related to the
Agriculture and Livestock Development (ALDEV) program of the colonial government to
improve agriculture in the ”African reserves.”
Whether the greater intensity of conservation is the result of enhanced conservation
ethics of farmers in Machakos or just being closer to Nairobi is a good question. Dietz (2000)
posits two causal mechanisms for the latter. First, transport costs for products are lower
because the distance to Nairobi is shorter (thus increasing available agricultural income to be
used for investment), and proximity to Nairobi increases opportunities for employment and
hence remittances that can be used for investments.
Second, it could mean that urban political or cultural influences (state projects, NGO
activities, church influence) have more impact. However, the village profiles show that the
actual “density” of projects is rather low. Although, there are numerous NGOs in Kenya,
their village-level representation is generally low. What matters is the overlap of networks
between representatives of these state and nonstate institutions, on the one hand, and
villagers, on the other. Many villagers do have profitable contacts with often well-educated
ex-villagers in influential positions elsewhere. It seems that the linkages with the cultural elite
(church leaders, in particular) are as important as linkages with the political or administrative
elite. Moral leadership extends to “good farmership” with a premium on church-mediated
social cohesion. Dietz (2000) further suggests that in the adoption of innovations for
sustainable land use, it is probably wise to go beyond a technical “diffusion of innovation”
approach and accept that it is more about “diffusion of lifestyles” and “moral codes of
conduct.” If cultural leaders accept certain practices and if their leadership is acknowledged
by many people in a village, the chance that farmers will follow can be expected to be high.
The perception of a soil erosion problem does not necessarily translate into a higher
likelihood of increasing investment in soil erosion control through increased terrace intensity
or length.
19 Some areas of Machakos District were part of the so-called “White Highlands” and thus the district received
more attention.