trends and future of sustainable development - TransEco

developed countries but not globally. The off-shoring would not be possible without cost efficienttransport, particularly shipping as a part of global trade. Cost efficient transport is generally alsoenvironmentally efficient, but this leads to a rebound effect: increasing the efficiency of transportoperations decreases the environmental impacts and costs, which enables longer transport in order togain from e.g. lower labour costs, which in turn increases the environmental impacts of transport.In order to prevent the rebound effect, it has been proposed that the freight transport should fullyinternalize the external costs it is responsible for. However, the rebound effect mainly occurs on a globalscale and therefore actions against it are difficult to take. On a national scale a study in the UK by Piecyk& McKinnon (2007) revealed that lorries already more than cover their external costs to theinfrastructure and the environment.3. Framework for the analysisThe widely accepted framework for analyzing the relationships between the economy and road freighttransport was introduced by McKinnon & Woodburn (1996) and further enhanced in a wide Europeanresearch on the subject (REDEFINE 1999). Cooper et al. (1998) extended the framework to include theenvironmental effects and McKinnon (2010) introduced also monetary valuation of the environmentaleffects for determining the external costs of logistics operations. The basic structure of the frameworkhas, however, remained the same. For this study, the framework, presented in Figure 1, is slightly alteredby including various determinants for the key ratios, and is similar to the one presented in Liimatainenand Pöllänen (2010). Monetary valuation and other environmental effects than energy consumption andCO 2 emissions are omitted from our framework as we focus on acquiring in-depth information andprojections on energy efficiency and CO 2 emissions.438