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MICROALGAE AS A BIOFUEL FEEDSTOCK: RISKS ANDCHALLENGESLiandong Zhu 1 and Tarja Ketola 21 Faculty of Technology, University of Vaasa, Finland2 University of Turku, FinlandABSTRACT – From sustainability perspective, the potential risks associated with microalgae-basedbiofuel (MBB) production will be investigated in this paper, including environmental, economic, socialand cultural dimensions. Environmentally, four main concerns are mapped out: firstly, there existspotential water safety risks, such as water resource abuse, regional pollution caused by downstream,groundwater recharge deficiency, etc.; secondly, unreasonable construction will lead to land useoverexpansion, land pollution and service expectancy reduction; thirdly, it may exert a detrimentaleffect on local ecosystem, causing algal blooms and biological invasion; finally, it may emit unexpectedgreenhouse gases (NO x , CH 4 ). From an economic risk standpoint, MBB production requiresoverwhelming investments due to expensive start-up establishment and more people may beunemployed because of increased automation. Socially, contaminant discharge will threaten the healthof local animals and people, and over time microalgae may become the medium for mosquitoes tospread disease. From cultural point of view, it requires time for people in developing countries toadapt MBB to their daily life as an alternative to conventional fossil fuel. Taking the above challengesinto consideration, efficient government policies, proactive company behaviors and positive publicparticipation will play an important role in minimizing or even eliminating these potential risks.Keywords: Microalgae, Biofuel, Impact, Risk, Challenge1. IntroductionThere has been ever-increasing demand for diesel supply in the world. In European countries especiallyAustria, Spain, France and Italy, market share of diesel-based cars has exceeded 50% since 2006 (NesteOil, 2006). Based on the current consumption of about 11.6 million tons of crude oil per day, it isexpected that the entire resources can only suffice for a rather short time period (Shafiee & Topal, 2009;Vasudevan & Briggs, 2008). Analyzing global oil depletion, the UK Energy Research Centre even made aconclusion that a peak of conventional oil production will be reached between 2020 and 2030 whenwell-available resources will be used up (Sorrell et al., 2009). However, new oil and gas reserves haveconstantly been found. The most exciting discovery is that new geological surveys show that as much as afifth of the world's undiscovered but exploitable gas and oil reserves lie under the Arctic ice (McCarthy,488
2008). In this situation, potential oil and gas refining will increase fossil fuel reserves, thus causing therisks of the exponential rise of greenhouse effect, which can result in all kinds of catastrophes to ourplanet Earth and its inhabitants. One of the evidently exiting problems is that the high number of onroaddiesel vehicles implies that emissions from the engines contribute significantly to the atmosphericlevels of the most important greenhouse gas, CO 2 and other urban pollutants such as CO, NO x , unburnedhydrocarbons, particulate matters and aromatics (Kalam et al., 2003). To confront the global climatechanges, biofuels (biodiesel, bioethanol, biogas, etc.), as a renewable and alternative energy, aredeveloped and being put into practice.Under the above background, microalgae have overwhelmingly received a lot of attention as a newbiomass source for the production of biofuel. Several strengths account for the reasons why microalgaecan be utilized as one of the most promising biofuel feedstock. First, microalgae have highphotosynthesis efficiency and can grow very fast. Chisti (2008) illustrates that microalgae can producemany times as much oil as the other materials (e.g. soybean, corn, rapeseed, palm, sunflower) per unit ofgrowing area every year. Second, microalgae can be cultivated without occupying farmlands (Aikins etal., 2009), and thus can reduce the possible damage to the agricultural ecosystem and the traditionalfood webs. Third, fresh water is not essential and nutrients can be supplied by wastewater (Mulbry et al.,2009; Wang et al., 2009) and CO 2 by combustion gas (Wang et al., 2008) during cultivation. Fourth,they can be collected very quickly, obviously accelerating the biodiesel production process (Avagyan,2008). Fifth, the property of their uniform cell structure with no bark, stems, branches or leaves makethe commercial production attractive (Avagyan, 2008), thus making the operation and control ofreproduction conditions much more practical. Finally, the physical and fuel properties of biodiesel frommicroalgal oil in general (e.g. density, viscosity, acid value, heating value, etc.) are comparable to thoseof fuel diesel (Miao & Wu, 2006).Recently, microalgae-based biofuel (MBB) has been enjoying a surge in popularity since it hasbecome one of researchers’ keenest interest in energy field and most of their studies have been focusedon the following aspects: 1) microalgae culture system, including raceway, photobioreactor (PBR) andfermenter, 2) collection, screening and classification of microalgae, 3) biochemical and physiologicalstudies on lipid material production, 4) molecular biology and genetic engineering, and 5) systemanalysis and resource assessment. Plenty of relative findings and technological breakthroughs have beenobtained until now, theoretically and/or empirically. And most of them have been emphasized on thepositive strengths of implementation of microalgae as a biofuel feedstock, such as available biomass,high oil content, carbon neutral, etc. However, there is limited detailed published information availableon the sustainability concerns or risks related with MBB production.2. Purpose and perspectiveThis is an exploratory study and the purpose of this research is to map out the environmental, economic,social and cultural risks of MBB production from sustainability perspective. Identifying the coreenvironmental, economic, social and cultural impacts associated with microalgae biofuel production isthe first step in supporting the development of a sustainable biofuel industry. This is especiallyimportant for the following two reasons: for one thing, today more than ever before, unpredictableenvironmental issues strongly bound with the economic, social and cultural impacts of the energy sector489
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Hanna Lakkala & Jarmo Vehmas (edito
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CONTENTSINTRODUCTION ..............
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Implementation of Total responsibil
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In addition, an expert panel chaire
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GROUPING AND RANKING THE EU-27 COUN
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objects, i.e. countries. The city b
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Motorization rate (number of cars/
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Cluster 7: Italy, SpainAs can be un
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The northwestern European cluster i
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ReferencesEurostat (2011) Eurostat
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The authors applied both the SUMMA
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3.1. SUMMA examplesEmissions are a
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sector not in the paid work sector
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sustainability. While non-use and e
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Figure 5.Fund-Flow analysis of Scot
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examination concern e.g. dispersal
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These interlinked themes strongly a
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Social sustainabilitySocial sustain
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Economic sustainabilityThe existenc
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Public transport is efficient (supp
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SECRETARIAT OF THE CONVENTION ON BI
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1. Introduction and BackgroundThe d
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3. Case StudiesTwo alternative scen
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(methodological, spatial and time-s
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Comparing with energy uses in Campa
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ESI 0.02 0.02 0.14 0.14% Renewable
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Kamm, B. - Kamm, M. (2004) Principl
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It is possible to identify five pre
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Case study applicationThe Cairngorm
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The language and terminology used b
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utility of MUSIASEM were less varie
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Our findings illustrate that relati
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McNie, E. C. 2007, "Reconciling the
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1. IntroductionRomania is a country
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Figure 2.The Manufacture sector has
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Figure 5.Between 2002 and 2006, Ele
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The database of net taxes on produc
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Serbanescu, I., 2007. Romania Under
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flows such as the residuals of prod
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Consumption (TMC) is a deriavite of
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6. Imported and Exported Material F
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points of view means that the use o
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TRENDS AND DRIVING FACTORS IN FINNI
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Figure 1.The interlinking of the fr
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Figure 3. The removal of total andc
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200150100500-50CO2FI/FECFIFECFI/VAF
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ReferencesBraczyk, P.H.J., Cooke, P
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“JUST BEGIN”A CASE STUDY IN CRE
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2. Materials and MethodsThe role of
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everyone some share in the land’s
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allowing for winter grazing and car
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Useful PrinciplesAn especially impo
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This approach necessarily has major
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POWERING THE FUTURE OF THE LEAST DE
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made interviews in a village that h
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was put on projects predominantly f
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(discussed in more detail in follow
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4. Solar Home System Program in Lao
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micro hydro has not received that m
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And the role of smaller scale solut
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has become in discourse level the m
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ReferencesBerliant, Leslie (2009) W
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DEVELOPING TIBET INTO A SPECIAL SUS
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are just a curiosity for festivals
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Environmental sustainabilityEnviron
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and towns under the reservoir. Howe
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ailways, airports and townships for
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(3) social needs: good relations an
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COPENHAGEN FAILURE AND NORTH-SOUTHD
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”whoever defines the terms of the
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Blair makes a division between deve
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Issue 3: Action suggestionsOne of t
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change as a serious problem and und
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aspects. Through the scrutiny of le
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50 000 ha are currently irrigated.
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Table 2.The main pieces of legislat
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Table 3.The main policy documents o
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However, the Zambian laws on sanita
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State House (2009). Updated on 16th
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Forum 2009). As agriculture is the
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2005; Levy and Newell 2002). These
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The virtual water ‘flows’ embed
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value given to the other members of
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countries of operation, promoting m
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Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain, A.K., (2
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1723. SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION
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guarantee the consumer’s opportun
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3. Growth of GDP doesn’t guarante
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Veblen’s observation on the inter
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overriding of the ‘interference o
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consumption has no centre point (or
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Habermas, J., 1968. Erkenntnis und
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2010). However, people who prioriti
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Table 2.Operationalizing of attitud
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material intensity, which is driven
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225 cases of serious illness per te
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instance, to tax labor in the frame
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Anderson, A., Harris, T., Tylavsky,
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Heiskala, R. (2000). Toiminta, tapa
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Rauh, V., Arunajadai, S., Horton, M
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MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM CONSUMPTION- TW
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possibilities to participate in the
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udgets were mostly selected by expe
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Figure 1.Material footprint of the
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eference budgets. A reduction in li
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Schmidt-Bleek,F. (2009) The Earth:
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A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR LIFE CYC
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Geels notes that for transitions to
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Hafkamp (2002), working from the ec
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4.1. LCT based analysis as a test f
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effect, this image establishes a vi
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management strategies, it has been
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5.2.3. Subsidiarity: Level of imple
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Council Directive. 2008. 2008/98/EC
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LAND USE FOR BIOENERGY PRODUCTION -
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Economic: part of the technical pot
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local food production system. Conse
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As can be seen from the graph above
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ReferencesBerndes G, Hoogwijk M, va
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DRIVERS AND BARRIERS TO SUSTAINABLE
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Figure 1.Dynamic and Folding Field
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esponses to an array of possible em
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Leadership and institutionsThe SEQC
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not preferable. Scenario 4: Transfo
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Figure 2.Practical responses across
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Wilber, Ken. 2001. A Theory of Ever
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2. Background and LiteratureSustain
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about environmental challenges. Sco
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interconnectedness of globalization
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ConclusionThe analysis of the data
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ReferencesAgenda 21, Chapter 36. Th
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2. Theory and LiteratureTo achieve
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There probably are professional dif
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design fields, 2 from economics and
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out. While there are some necessary
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J. (Eds.) Proceedings of LeNS Confe
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INNOVATIVE FISCAL POLICY IN THE CON
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3. A concept of innovative fiscal p
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transfers, and social contributions
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Although Finland can be ranked into
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which induced lower tax revenues -
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panacea; furthermore, unlegislated
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ReferencesAfonso, A. - Hauptmeier,
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In this paper are presented some fi
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The baseline scenario for 2011-2012
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Indirect effects: the increased wei
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AcknowledgementsThis paper was supp
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e added to the domestic hidden econ
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case when all household are involve
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(from 70.8% in 1997 to 63.1% in 200
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Appendix 1Shares of informal income
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H2 Estimations under the hypotheses
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1999). In this analysis the Finnish
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warming, growing environmental burd
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aggregate indicator. It is by no me
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Diefenbacher, H. 1994. The index of
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3147. CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY
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themselves - both in day-to-day bus
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3. How do we arrive at big picture?
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Figure 3.Pillars of sustainability
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That communication, networking, and
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companies already consider the sust
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1. IntroductionCompanies leading in
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Figure 1.Sources of InnovationExami
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penetration of disruptive innovatio
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introduced by Canon which eventuall
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Scenario 4 - Disruptive Era: This i
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Margolis, J.D. and Walsh, J. P. 200
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1. IntroductionTotal Quality manage
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Waddock and Graves, 1997). Neverthe
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organizations to discover and creat
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undertaken to pursue a sustainable
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and ways to enhance and effectively
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Waddock, SA & Graves, SB 1997. ‘T
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the company and its stakeholders. O
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persons. About 30% of the shares ar
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working groups and board of directo
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sustainability webpages and press r
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Näsi, Juha (1995) What is stakehol
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the indirect and inter-stakeholder
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In June 2005, the presidents of Uru
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examine the stakeholder relationshi
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Union expressed its’ support to t
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The analysis of this case illustrat
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Meyer, K. E., Mudambi, R. & Narula,
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(Vandenbergh 2007; McBarnet and Kur
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Finally, enforceability is another
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3.2. OverviewThe legal scholarship
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law, transnational private regulati
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The SA8000, a certification based s
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As the analyzed literature shows, t
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Shaffer, G. and Pollack, M.A.., 201
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documents and to correct the disclo
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2.2. The EU CSR disclosure regimeSi
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The decision laid down the path for
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2011). More fundamental criticisms
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espect of the materiality of CSR re
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unexpected side effects as well. As
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HEITZMAN, S., WASLEY, C. E. & ZIMME
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4008. FUTURES METHODS
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1. IntroductionThe Finnish society
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Figure 2.An analysis on effectivene
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In the following the scenarios are
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Development corresponds closest to
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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF WILD CARDS AND
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infrastructure sector. Thus, the ne
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consulted the right experts or if w
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Tampere area and Lapin Kansa is pub
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Here are just a few examples of the
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transparent decision-making. If pol
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Local and Regional Authorities.http
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DELPHI ON TRANSPORT AND CO 2 EMISSI
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which had offered little informatio
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and sidewalks. The use and ownershi
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very slow decrease after the year 2
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emissions of the car, and the annua
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Finnish Government (2008) Long-term
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ANALYSING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF ROA
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Page 442 and 443: analysis and literature survey form
Page 444 and 445: However, the survey did not give in
Page 446 and 447: DETR (1999) Sustainable distributio
Page 448 and 449: complex and systematic understandin
Page 450 and 451: The structure and aims of the paper
Page 452 and 453: Table 1.Steps of the ANT-derived me
Page 454 and 455: After the first iteration the impor
Page 456 and 457: in the real world? Since the lack o
Page 458 and 459: SMALL STEP TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE TRAN
Page 460 and 461: Quantitative content analysis was p
Page 462 and 463: general, attitudes towards car tax
Page 464 and 465: Future orientation of the discussio
Page 466 and 467: public, there were little possibili
Page 468 and 469: 46810. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
Page 470 and 471: meaningful components and compares
Page 472 and 473: fuel combustion. Positive values fo
Page 474 and 475: We analyse the changes in the count
Page 476 and 477: 200180160140120100806040200Activity
Page 478 and 479: has had considerable impact on CO 2
Page 480 and 481: The structural decomposition analys
Page 482 and 483: Intensity effect on Final Energy Co
Page 484 and 485: %China, factors affecting CO 2 emis
Page 486 and 487: 4. ConclusionsThe decomposition ana
Page 490 and 491: are dominating the international ag
Page 492 and 493: 3.1.3. BiodiversityBiodiversity is
Page 494 and 495: Moreover, people attach more and mo
Page 496 and 497: important role in tackling with or
Page 498 and 499: Spolaore P., Joannis C. C., Duran E
Page 500 and 501: DESIGNING SUSTAINABLE INNOVATIONSK.
Page 502 and 503: disciplines and socialised in diffe
Page 504 and 505: 5. Corporate contextKSB is a medium
Page 506 and 507: Most important, BOS does not touch
Page 508 and 509: ongoing or expected changes in the
Page 510 and 511: 1Idea andevaluation2Clarif. ofobjec
Page 512 and 513: Arthur. 2009. The Nature of Technol
Page 514 and 515: SUSTAINABILITY AWARENESS IN DESIGN
Page 516 and 517: Figure 1.Left: The various roles of
Page 518 and 519: longer product centred. It is widel
Page 520 and 521: the competence to help develop dema
Page 522 and 523: Figure 4.Survey framework: Dimensio
Page 524 and 525: gap. In our survey, the lack of con
Page 526 and 527: SUSTAINABILITY AND INDUSTRIAL DESIG
Page 528 and 529: “memories of the future” that e
Page 530 and 531: that it is quite common for compani
Page 532 and 533: 3. How will sustainability change:
Page 534 and 535: e sensitive to sustainability as th
Page 536 and 537: Industrial Designers Society of Ame
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