Historical Dictionary of Terrorism Third Edition

58 • ASYMMETRIC WARFAREconvictions could bar refugee status unless the supposed offenseswere not recognized as criminal by the state granting asylum.During the 1990s the threats of sexual exploitation, discriminationbased on sexual orientation, and genital mutilation have alsogained ground in some Western nations as legitimate grounds forthose seeking asylum.ASYMMETRIC WARFARE. This refers to warfare, insurgency,or terrorism conducted by weak opponents against opponents havingadvantages of strength in numbers, hardware, and technologyin which the weaker opponent seeks to outwit or defeat the strongeropponent by lucid and incisive use of tactics and strategy, resourcefulness,patience and determination, and disregard for conventions of“fair” fighting and warfare.Asymmetric warfare is also often referred to as fourth-generationwarfare. To put this into perspective, the several generations ofwarfare are reviewed here: First-generation warfare is essentiallywarfare by attrition of the enemy’s force. Second-generation warfareinvolves maneuvers to use better and faster troops and weaponsagainst potentially larger forces. Third-generation warfare involvesbetter use of command, communications, control, and intelligence,using psychological operations, and the “soft” power of technologyto overcome the “hard” power of an enemy’s troops and weapons.Beyond the fourth generation of asymmetric warfare, there is afifth-generation model derived from Maoist insurgency doctrine inwhich propaganda, or information-based warfare, is joined with hightechnology to demoralize a targeted vulnerable government or setof institutions. An example of this is Sendero Luminoso’s use ofarmed propaganda to undermine the morale and legitimacy of thePeruvian government.AUM SHINRIKYO (AUM). The Aum Supreme Truth group is anapocalyptic doomsday cult founded by Shoko Asahara that wasresponsible for the Tokyo subway gas attack using sarin nerve gason 20 March 1995. Asahara, originally named Matsumoto Chozuo,was born in February 1955 and attended a special school for theblind from which he graduated in 1975. In 1982 he was arrested forselling a counterfeit medicine that he claimed was merely officiallyunapproved. In 1984 he established his group, originally named AumShinsen No Kai and changed his name to Shoko Asahara. After go-