The Nordic Countries and the European Security and Defence Policy

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182 NATIONAL DEFENCE AND EUROPEAN COOPERATIONNATO. The IEPG’s functions were transferred to the Western European Union(WEU) in December 1992. Among the basic principles for that move was thatthere should be a single European armaments cooperation forum. Since May1993 the WEU armaments cooperation forum has been known as the WesternEuropean Armaments Group (WEAG). Its policy aims are basically the same asthose of the EDA and those formulated in the 2000 Framework Agreement:more efficient use of resources through inter alia increased harmonization ofrequirements; the opening up of national defence markets to cross-border competition;the strengthening of the European defence technological and defenceindustrial base; and cooperation in R&D. 47While Denmark and Norway, as NATO members, were full members of theIEPG from the start in 1976, Finland and Sweden became full members of theWEAG only in November 2000. Representatives from all the Nordic countriestake part in the work to strengthen the European position in defence researchand technology and to promote cost-effective cooperative equipment programmes.In early 2005 it was formally agreed that the EDA would graduallytake over the activities of the WEAG. 48 It seems reasonable to expect that theFramework Agreement will also be incorporated into the EDA and that theOrganisation Conjointe de Coopération en matière d’Armement (OCCAR, thejoint armaments cooperation organization), 49 and possibly EU members’involvement in the NATO Research and Technology Agency, will establishsome kind of link with the EDA’s work. In other words, increasing ‘EUropeanization’of defence R&D, manufacture and procurement should be expected. 50Nordic countries may be able to influence some of these developments: in 2004Finland and Sweden secured important but temporary positions for theirnationals as EDA assistant director for armaments and EDA director for industryand markets, respectively. 51 Sub-regional activities, however, must fitbroader EU goals and capabilities that are likely to be defined mainly by moreimportant members states and producers.In this process, NORDAC may have to adapt, change its ambitions or perhapseven dissolve. The unequal distribution of NORDAC’s benefits is said to be theprice that the Nordic countries must pay in order to reap the benefits from47 On the IEPG and the WEAG see URL . Cooperation between governmentresearch establishments through joint programmes has been aided by memoranda of understanding,the first (THALES: Technology Arrangements for Laboratories for Defence European) signed on 18 Nov.1996 and the most recent (EUROPA: European Understanding on Research Organisation, Programmesand Activities) on 15 May 2001.48 ‘EU/Defence: EDA formally endorses transfer of WEAG/WEAO activities to EDA’, Atlantic News,26 Apr. 2005, p. 3.49 The OCCAR was established by France, Germany, Italy and the UK on 12 Nov. 1996. For moreinformation see URL .50 Swedish National Audit Office, Materiel för miljarder: en granskning av försvarets materielförsörjning[Equipment worth billions: a review of defence procurement], RiR 2004:6 (Riksrevisionen:Stockholm, 2004), URL , pp. 79–110.51 It was reported that Sweden achieved its position through unfair competition with the Finnish candidate.Lundberg, S., ‘Finsk vrede over EU:s direcktörsval’ [Finnish anger over EU’s director choice],Dagens Nyheter, 21 Oct. 2004, p. 15.
HARDWARE POLITICS 183Nordic armament cooperation. However, it is questionable whether Nordiccountries and their armed forces will accept such imbalances if EU solutionsoffer greater benefits. It is therefore understandable that Finland is studying theconditions for European equipment maintenance and support cooperation. 52Although cost savings have been achieved through intra-Nordic cooperation,the small, unbalanced and stagnant intra-Nordic arms market suggests that littlecan be achieved through common major acquisitions, especially if some nationsdo not participate and if military expenditure is stable or has to be reduced. Forinstance, a NORDAC study group on the procurement of the next generation ofunmanned air vehicles (UAVs)—an important type of future equipment 53 —failed because the Nordic countries were not clear about what they wanted orwhen. Saab is studying UAVs and participates in a multinational undertaking todefine armed UAVs together with Dassault Aviation (France), EADS (trans-Europe), Hellenic Aircraft Industry (Greece) and Thales (France). 54 In addition,in 2004 three industrial associations in which Nordic defence industries participatemerged to form the AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association ofEurope, strengthening their common base for influencing as well as implementingEU policy. 55Sweden’s strong position among the Nordic countries plus the fact that it is aparty to the Framework Agreement may suggest that the country is in the bestposition to establish itself as an EU supplier and project partner. However, thiscould be a misperception. Since 1992 Sweden has been involved in the mosttraumatic defence transformation process of all the Nordic countries. It has allocatedinsufficient financial resources to cope at the same time with the windingdown of old structures, inventories and an oversized defence industrial base andwith the parallel creation of a smaller defence structure and a slim but competitive(but basically undefined) industrial base suited for the capabilitiesneeded to support Swedish participation in future international operationsalongside foreign forces. The Swedish Government’s defence bill, tabled inSeptember 2004, was withdrawn and amended in October after parliamentarycriticism, 56 and the public debate on how to spend the money and implement the52 Finnish Prime Minister’s Office, Finnish Security and Defence Policy 2004, Government Reportno. 6/2004 (Prime Minister’s Office: Helsinki, 2004), URL , p. 127.53 Gormley, D. M., ‘New developments in unmanned air vehicles and land-attack cruise missiles’,SIPRI Yearbook 2003: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security (Oxford University Press:Oxford, 2003), pp. 409–32.54 ‘Saab signs MoU with Dassault Aviation for UCAV demonstrator’, Nordic Business Report, 22 Dec.2003; and ‘Sweden pursues integrated approach to UAV/UCAV development’, Jane’s InternationalDefense Review, Sep. 2004, p. 8.55 The 3 associations were the European Association of Aerospace Industries, the European DefenceIndustries Group and the Association of the European Space Industry. Aerospace and Defence IndustriesAssociation of Europe, ‘European aeronautics, space and defence industries join forces in ASD’, Pressrelease, 22 Apr. 2004, URL .56 Regeringens proposition 2004/05:5: vårt framtida försvar [Government bill 2004/05:5: our futuredefence], 23 Sep. 2004, URL . Summary in English:Government Offices of Sweden, ‘Our future defence: the focus of Swedish defence policy 2005–2007’,Swedish Ministry of Defence, Stockholm, Oct. 2004, URL
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THE NORDICCOUNTRIES ANDTHE EUROPEAN
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Alyson J. K. Bailes (United Kingdom
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The Nordic Countries andthe Europea
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The Nordic Countries andthe Europea
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ContentsPrefacexiiAbbreviations and
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CONTENTSII. The European security c
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CONTENTSII. The small arms and ligh
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CONTENTSII. Iceland and the emergen
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PREFACEThe conference on the Nordic
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2 THE NORDIC COUNTRIES AND THE ESDP
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10 THE NORDIC COUNTRIES AND THE ESD
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Editor’s remarksGunilla HerolfPar
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EDITOR’S REMARKS 31which the vari
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EDITOR’S REMARKS 33mark as well s
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EDITOR’S REMARKS 35The Europeaniz
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1. Denmark and the European Securit
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DENMARK AND THE ESDP 39European def
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DENMARK AND THE ESDP 41safely leave
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DENMARK AND THE ESDP 43motions to t
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DENMARK AND THE ESDP 45effective
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DENMARK AND THE ESDP 47connected an
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52 INSTITUTIONAL AND NATIONAL POLIT
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100 INSTITUTIONAL AND NATIONAL POLI
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Part IINational defence and Europea
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114 THE BROADER DIMENSIONS OF SECUR
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6. The impact of EU capability targ
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CAPABILITY TARGETS AND OPERATIONAL
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Page 149 and 150: CAPABILITY TARGETS AND OPERATIONAL
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Page 161 and 162: THE CASE OF SWEDEN 143Government ha
Page 163 and 164: THE CASE OF SWEDEN 145immediate reg
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Page 167 and 168: THE CASE OF SWEDEN 149the navy will
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Page 187 and 188: HARDWARE POLITICS 169Sweden’s sec
Page 189 and 190: HARDWARE POLITICS 171the exploitati
Page 191 and 192: HARDWARE POLITICS 173share of Finla
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Page 195 and 196: HARDWARE POLITICS 177of internation
Page 197 and 198: HARDWARE POLITICS 179reluctant to a
Page 199: HARDWARE POLITICS 181EU ambitions a
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Page 205 and 206: DEFENCE INDUSTRIAL COLLABORATION 18
Page 211: Part IIINordic handling of the broa
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13. The Nordic countries and conven
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14. Nordic nuclear non-proliferatio
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16. Muddling through: how the EU is
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Editor’s remarksAlyson J. K. Bail
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302 THE NORDIC COUNTRIES, THEIR REG
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20. Iceland and the European Securi
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22. The Baltic states and security
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23. Baltic perspectives on the Euro
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AppendixExtracts from the Treaty Es
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ments, to promote measures to satis
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(c) strengthening systematic cooper
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Article III-303The Union may conclu
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shall carry out its tasks in liaiso
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EU CONSTITUTIONAL TREATY 403enhance
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS 405ning, Det 21.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS 407Karlis Neretni
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS 409her publicatio
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INDEX 411Atlanticism 364banking 357
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INDEX 413Kosovo and 45Left Socialis
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INDEX 415Counter-Terrorism Coordina
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attle group 154, 181Central Union o
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INDEX 419Iceland Defense Force 328,
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INDEX 421Washington Declaration (19
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INDEX 423NPT (Non-Proliferation Tre
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ESDP and 12, 16, 19, 24, 54-55, 59,
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INDEX 427Vienna Documents 236Viking
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