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Figure 3 shows that risk of illness is insignificant at all FS input rates below the 75 percentile flow. During 95 percentile flow, faecal loading needs to be reduced by 95% to give a risk of illness < 20%. These figures depend on the reliability of the extrapolation used in eq. (1) for risk of illness, and improvement of the epidemiological database for such modelling should be a research priority. There is also little information on the levels of FS in animals faeces, and literature data on inactivation suggest longer survival of FS than E. coli in soil (Cools et al., 2001) but higher sensitivity to sunlight (Sinton et al., 2002). 100% 75 th 80 th 85 th 90 th 95 th Percentile 80% Risk of Illness (%) . 60% 40% 20% 0% C urrent loading 25% reduction 50% reduction 75% reduction 80% reduction 85% reduction 90% reduction 95% reduction 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Daily C atchment Discharge (mm/day) Figure 3: Discharge and related risk of illness The WTP for avoidance of illness of BW improvement can now be compared with the costs of implementing BMPs to attempt to control diffuse pollution. Recent work has estimated the annual cost of installing BMPs on two farms in SW Scotland to be £3 k per farm plus £50 k capital cost (Merrilees, 2004). If we assume an annualised capital cost of £10 k, and that across the River Irvine catchment there are about 70 farms, total annualised mitigation costs are (3 + 10) x 70 = £910 k. From Table 4 the required reduction of FS loading achieved needs to be > 95% to obtain a benefit/cost ratio which exceeds 1. BMPs to assist in bathing water quality improvements include measures such as stock reduction, fencing, buffer strips, constructed wetlands, slurry storage, cattle access routes, and separating clean and dirty water. In practice achieving > 50% efficacy may be very difficult, particularly considering that BMP performance during high intensity flow events is critical. Dickson et al. (2005) found a 40% reduction in high flow faecal indicator loadings where BMPs had been installed. If the entire Irvine catchment installed these practices, bathing waters may still pose a high risk of illness after storm events. 215
Table 4: Expected lifetime benefits of reducing faecal loading in the Irvine catchment Reduction in faecal loading in the Irvine catchment Annual benefit (in £k) 25% reduction £63 £868 50% reduction £153 £2,103 75% reduction £312 £4,300 85% reduction £428 £5,897 95% reduction £617 £8,509 REFERENCES Aggregated benefits over 25 years at a 6% discount rate (in £k) Cools D, Merckx R, Vlassak K and Verhaegen J (2001). Survival of E.coli and Enterococcus spp. Derived from pig slurry in soils of different texture. Applied Soil Ecology 17, 3–62. Dickson JW, Edwards T, Jeffrey WA and Kay D (2005). Catchment scale appraisal of best management practices (BMPs) for the improvement of bathing water – Brighouse Bay. Report prepared for Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA). Reference 230/4187. SAC Environmental: Edinburgh [Internet] Scottish Executive Environment. URL http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Environment/Water/15561/bathingwatpro [Accessed 15th February 2006]. Economics for the Environment Consultancy Ltd (EFTEC) (2002). Valuation of Benefits to England and Wales of Revised Bathing Water Quality Directive and other Beach Characteristics Using the Choice Experiment Methodology. [Internet] Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. URL http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/water/quality/bathing/bw_study4.htm> [Accessed 16 August 2005]. Kay D, Fleisher JM, Salmon RL, Jones F, Wyer MD, Godfree AF, Zelenauch-Jacquotte Z and Shore R (1994). Predicting likelihood of gastroenteritis from sea bathing: results from randomised exposure. Lancet 344, 905–909. Merrilees DW (2004). Research and Design of Pilot Schemes to Minimise Livestock Pollution to the Water Environment in Scotland. Contract GLC 9/2. Final Report to the Scottish Executive. [Internet]. Scottish Executive Environment. URL http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Environment/Water/15561/pollutionmainreport [Accessed 10 August 2005]. Reddy KR, Khaleel R and Overcash MR (1981). Behaviour and transport of microbial pathogens and indicator organisms in soils treated with organic wastes. Journal of Environmental Quality 10, 255–266. 216
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International Water Association AGR
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2006 Conference Organising Committe
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Theme 2: Cost-effectiveness of Best
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Poster Presentations The Farm Soils
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viii
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managers need support in understand
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During the past 20 years, it became
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infiltration); and (4) capture, sto
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DOMINATING PARAMETERS OF IMPAIRMENT
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Using the results of the unsupervis
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Kohonen T (2001). Self-Organizing M
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WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE IMPLEMENT
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Table 1: Modelled total annual loss
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• It should be possible to apply
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Scottish Executive against 18 measu
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REFERENCES Anthony S, Betson M, Lor
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ased on the ‘drainage basin’ in
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management practices’ (BMPs) toge
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It is envisaged that these data wil
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testing (including climate change)
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Council of the European Communities
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DECREASING THE NITROGEN SOIL SURFAC
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Table 1: Overview of the measures c
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Table 2: Costs (C), effects (E) and
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Figure 2: Combination of ‘best av
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MATERIALS AND METHODS At the 5-km 2
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REFERENCES Jordan P, Menary W, Daly
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Although the TMDL programme origina
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grassland and heather moorland, sup
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Given that the release of P from th
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to the underlying causes, and thus
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All water body use attainment infor
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indicate the possible presence of p
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DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF M
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BMP is being implemented and the ap
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THE USE OF PONDS TO REDUCE POLLUTIO
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established pond/wetland for nutrie
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Table 1: Hydraulic load, mean water
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Comparable SS removals have been re
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Reddy GB, Hunt PG, Phillips R, Ston
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In general, the combinations of mea
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final word on the POMs selection an
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CONCLUSIONS The ERBD project team i
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Table 1: A summary of the measures
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Table 3: A summary of the represent
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cost (£'000/farm) or reduction in
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ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF MINIMISING
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spread cattle slurry in the autumn
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£25,000. The investment in trailin
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Studies on a drained clay soil at B
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REFERENCES Anon (2000). Fertiliser
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(Haygarth and Jarvis, 1999). The vo
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Application Representative farm sys
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Table 2: Modelled cost-curve for th
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ASSESSING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFU
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In the absence of data on the sourc
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Magnitude of Impacts The magnitude
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D. Use relative area of farm and wh
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ADAS has developed a matrix for Def
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Dickson JW, Edwards T, Jeffrey WA,
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60% phosphorus and 50% nitrogen of
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Landscape St
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was contributed to the low vegetati
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iological uptake in a grassed area.
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Tim US, Jolly R and Liao HH (1995).
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to control SS and P loads from agri
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Total P inputs in fertilisers and m
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Within the Teme catchment, largest
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A RISK ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION ST
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Environmental Monitoring The primar
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BMP measure 1 (exclusion of stock f
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(a) With reference to the increase
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SAC acknowledges f
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The Environment Sensitive Farming (
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improved further as a result of att
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to do more to reduce pesticide impa
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MANAGING DIFFUSE POLLUTION FROM A F
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turbulent air mixing. The effect th
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Although nitrate leaching can be re
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infiltration of water sheeting off
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Nisbet TR, Orr H and Broadmeadow S
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anthropogenic activities are pollut
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monitoring is determined up front b
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(USEPA). Nevertheless, by applying
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• Sampling equipment •Laborator
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Reinert RE, Knuth BA, Kamrin MA and
Page 173 and 174: Tier 3 - Tier 3 of LMCs is planned
Page 175 and 176: policy literature, although this is
Page 177 and 178: Figure 1: Individual-collective spe
Page 179 and 180: • tailoring activities to local c
Page 181 and 182: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The support of the
Page 183 and 184: THE EFFECT OF DIFFUSE POLLUTION FRO
Page 185 and 186: equires the Minister to designate a
Page 187 and 188: protection and restoration, sustain
Page 189 and 190: expensive. One-to-one contact becom
Page 191 and 192: farmers. In England, recent policy
Page 193 and 194: practices but, hopefully, the chang
Page 195 and 196: A CASE STUDY: ADOPTION OF BEST MANA
Page 197 and 198: The approaches taken by Brittany to
Page 199 and 200: MANURE TREATMENT By January 2005, t
Page 201 and 202: REGULATORY OPTIONS FOR THE MANAGEME
Page 203 and 204: There are also measures that contro
Page 205 and 206: widely recognised as needing much a
Page 207 and 208: ploughed, of rivers and streams tha
Page 209 and 210: is the only mechanism identified fo
Page 211 and 212: PHOSPHORUS STORAGE IN FINE CHANNEL
Page 213 and 214: structure and minimum level of main
Page 215 and 216: REFERENCES May L, Place C, O’Hea
Page 217 and 218: LOUND CATCHMENT PROJECT: WORKING WI
Page 219 and 220: MINIMISING THE PRESSURES AND IMPACT
Page 221 and 222: Predicting Bathing Water Quality Vi
Page 223: Risk of illness percentages were ca
Page 227 and 228: DETERMINATION OF THE VETERINARY ANT
Page 229 and 230: Thin Layer Chromatography The sampl
Page 231 and 232: Table 2: Regression functions and c
Page 233 and 234: OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR U
Page 235 and 236: to land managers and agency staff t
Page 237 and 238: stakeholders, together with their i
Page 239 and 240: REFERENCES EC (2000). Directive 200
Page 241 and 242: A third scenario was applied to Clu
Page 243 and 244: Based on a detailed distribution of
Page 245 and 246: could be misleading. The results of
Page 247 and 248: TACKLING DIFFUSE NITRATE POLLUTION:
Page 249 and 250: AMMONIA VOLATILISATION FROM CATTLE
Page 251 and 252: and 27% of the soil surface at 80 m
Page 253 and 254: FIELD TESTING OF MITIGATION OPTIONS
Page 255 and 256: techniques can significantly reduce
Page 257 and 258: NITRATE CONTAMINATION OF GROUNDWATE
Page 259 and 260: MATERIALS AND METHODS At two UK sit
Page 261 and 262: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding of this wo
Page 263 and 264: y standard methods and fresh, end o
Page 265 and 266: comparable to those in water draini
Page 267 and 268: Results may be influential in deter
Page 269 and 270: • numbers and distribution of liv
Page 271 and 272: Using this method of classification
Page 273 and 274: Table 5: Results of land use scenar
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CONCLUSIONS As a decision support t
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types. This paper reports results f
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N Losses in Drainage Water Mean nit
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SOIL AND CROP MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON
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treatments, typically 10 storm even
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Tramline Effects In both years, obs
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Notes 278
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