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languages of the immigrants. One of the few surviving languages of people who lived in Europe before the arrival of the Indo-Europeans is Basque, spoken by natives of the Pyrenees Mountains that separate France and Spain. A later wave of immigrants brought agriculture across Europe from the Middle East (see agriculture, evolution of). Among the earliest agricultural cities in the Middle East are Jericho (Israel) and Çatal Höyük (Turkey). The transformation of Cro-Magnon into modern civilization involved an increasing rapidity of technological, cultural, and artistic innovation and increasing geographical variation. Further Reading Hitchcock, Don. “Cave Paintings and Sculptures.” Available online. URL: http://donsmaps.com/cavepaintings.html. Accessed March 23, 2005. Lewis-Williams, David. The Mind in the Cave. London: Thames and Hudson, 2002. O’Neil, Dennis. “Early Modern Human Culture.” Available online. URL: http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/sapiens_culture.htm. Accessed March 23, 2005. cultural evolution See evolution. Cuvier, Georges (1769–1832) French Biologist, Paleontologist Georges Cuvier was born on August 23, 1769. He made contributions to the understanding of animal anatomy and the history of the Earth that allowed the later development of evolutionary science. Cuvier’s main contributions were to establish the science of comparative anatomy and the fact that extinctions have occurred during the history of the Earth. In 1795 French biologist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire invited Cuvier, who was then a naturalist and tutor, to come to Paris. While Geoffroy started Cuvier’s career, the two men were later to split over fundamental scientific issues. Soon Cuvier became a professor of animal anatomy at the Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle (National Museum of Natural History), established by the Revolutionary government. Not only did Cuvier stay at his post when Napoleon came to power, but Napoleon appointed him to several government positions, including Inspector-General of Public Education. Cuvier held government positions under three French kings thereafter. Cuvier may have been the only public figure to have held French government leadership positions under Revolutionary, Napoleonic, and monarchical regimes. Cuvier’s careful studies of the anatomy of invertebrate and vertebrate animals allowed him to develop the science of comparative anatomy. The function of one organ within an animal could only be understood as it related to the other organs; all organs fit and functioned together perfectly. Because of this, Cuvier had the famous ability to reconstruct organisms from the most fragmentary of fossil remains. When more complete fossils were later found, Cuvier’s reconstructions turned out to be amazingly accurate. A corollary of this principle was that no part of an animal could change without destroying its ability to interact with all the other parts. This is one reason that Cuvier did not accept any evo- Cuvier, Georges 0 lutionary theories, such as that proposed by his fellow French scientist Lamarck (see Lamarckism). Another reason is that when Cuvier studied the mummified cats and ibises that had been brought to France from Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt, he found that they were no different from modern cats and ibises. From this Cuvier concluded that animals did not undergo evolutionary change. Cuvier was one of the first to recognize that groups of animals had fundamental structural differences. He classified animal life into four branches or embranchements: the vertebrates, the articulates (arthropods and segmented worms), mollusks, and the radiates (cnidarians and echinoderms) (see invertebrates, evolution of). These embranchements correspond roughly to modern evolutionary classifications, although echinoderms have bilaterally symmetrical larvae even if adult starfish have external radial symmetry. Because all organs must work together, the organs of animals in one embranchement would not work with organs of animals in another; therefore Cuvier considered evolutionary transformations among the embranchements to be impossible. Because he recognized the separate embranchements of animal life, Cuvier opposed the theories of contemporaries such as Buffon (see Buffon, Georges), Lamarck, and Geoffroy, all of whom suggested or championed some form of evolutionary transformation. Cuvier pointed out that vertebrates have a central nerve cord along the back (dorsal) surface of the body, while articulates have a nerve cord along the front (ventral) surface, and that no transformation is possible between them. Geoffroy’s response, which was at the time unsupported by evidence, was that vertebrates might have developed as upside-down articulates. Geoffroy’s view was not vindicated until the discovery of Hox genes (see developmental evolution). One of these genes, found both in flies and frogs, affected the ventral surface of fly embryos but the dorsal surface of frog embryos. Furthermore, Buffon and Geoffroy claimed that vestigial characteristics were evolutionary leftovers. Cuvier claimed that all organs were perfectly designed, and a vestigial organ was one whose function had not yet been discovered. Cuvier was not the first to believe that extinction had occurred, but his studies removed all reasonable doubt. Fossilized mammoths had been found in Italy and the United States. Some scientists claimed that the Italian bones were merely those of elephants that had died during Hannibal’s invasion of Rome. American President Thomas Jefferson believed that mammoths were still alive somewhere in the American wilderness; one of the purposes of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was to find them. Cuvier’s careful study of living elephants and of mammoth and mastodon bones proved that Indian and African elephants were different species, and that mammoths and mastodons were not elephants. He also studied the skeletons of the Irish elk, a kind of deer with huge antlers, and demonstrated that they were unlike any existing animal. Cuvier explained extinction as having resulted from “revolutions” during Earth history. He avoided the word catastrophe because of its supernatural overtones, but his view was similar to that of the supporters of catastrophism.
0 Cuvier, Georges Cuvier held strong views about the superiority of some races and regions over others. He proclaimed in 1817, regarding the “Negro race,” that “… with its small cranium, flattened nose, its protruding jaw, and its large lips, this race clearly resembles the monkeys.” Within two decades anatomist Friedrich Tiedemann had demonstrated the fundamental equality of the races (see eugenics; Homo sapiens), but by then Cuvier was dead. Although Cuvier rejected evolution, his approach to the study of anatomy and his proof of extinction were breakthroughs that made evolutionary science possible. He died on May 13, 1832.
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Evolution
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Encyclopedia of Evolution Copyright
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Contents Foreword ix Acknowledgment
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Foreword The theory and facts of ev
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IntroduCtIon What you do not know a
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other issues coming along with it.
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adaptation Adaptation is the fit of
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from the allometric patterns of gro
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considered as an example. (The taxo
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English) were a resounding success,
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Some Centers of the Evolution of Ag
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helps the DNA insert into the host
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Even within a single patient, HIV e
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then into the insect body; carbon d
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chromosomes (they are diploid) whil
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genetic basis. About 35,000 years a
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emained dormant and sprouted after
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Further Reading Wise, Steven M. Rat
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Because the DNA of many archaebacte
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Koi and goldfish have been bred tha
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Barringer Crater, Arizona, was form
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y a silent wall of darkness advanci
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Skeleton of “Lucy,” the Austral
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Further Reading Alemseged, Zerxenay
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acteria, evolution of Examples of t
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0 Bates, Henry Walter advantage. Th
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ehavior, evolution of In another sp
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ig bang make nests with horizontal
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iodiversity How Much Do Genes Contr
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iodiversity Biodiversity (as indica
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0 biogeography Another problem with
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iogeography Biogeography of Selecte
Page 73 and 74: iogeography their species through d
Page 75 and 76: iology design) or adaptation to the
Page 77 and 78: iology D. Response to environment.
Page 79 and 80: 0 birds, evolution of • The foot.
Page 81 and 82: irds, evolution of • doves and pi
Page 83 and 84: Burgess shale early career. By heat
Page 85 and 86: Burgess shale jointed legs, Anomalo
Page 87 and 88: Cambrian period occurred when anima
Page 89 and 90: 0 Cenozoic era opens the way to an
Page 91 and 92: Chicxulub Pritchard, J., and Dolph
Page 93 and 94: cladistics The above examples used
Page 95 and 96: coevolution descent, and that scien
Page 97 and 98: coevolution Coevolution of Organism
Page 99 and 100: 0 coevolution What Are the “Ghost
Page 101 and 102: coevolution What Are the “Ghosts
Page 103 and 104: commensalism Wilson, Michael. Micro
Page 105 and 106: continental drift was an animal tha
Page 107 and 108: continental drift During geological
Page 109 and 110: 0 convergence bee-pollinated flower
Page 111 and 112: convergence Both birds and bats hav
Page 113 and 114: creationism explained these observa
Page 115 and 116: creationism used to justify militar
Page 117 and 118: creationism • In the early 21st c
Page 119 and 120: 00 Cretaceous period however, other
Page 121 and 122: 0 Cro-Magnon evolution had occurred
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Page 127 and 128: 0 Darwin Awards Darwin Awards “Th
Page 129 and 130: 0 Darwin, Charles forever. It would
Page 131 and 132: Darwin, Charles and animals did hav
Page 133 and 134: Darwin’s finches has its own uniq
Page 135 and 136: Dawkins, Richard ate the pulp. More
Page 137 and 138: developmental evolution Part II. In
Page 139 and 140: 0 Devonian period gene from an inve
Page 141 and 142: dinosaurs what DeVries thought were
Page 143 and 144: diseases, evolution of • Thyreoph
Page 145 and 146: disjunct species have happened? Som
Page 147 and 148: DNA (evidence for evolution) genes,
Page 149 and 150: 0 DNA (evidence for evolution) seco
Page 151 and 152: DNA (raw material of evolution) DNA
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Page 155 and 156: Dobzhansky, Theodosius Mice have tw
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Page 159 and 160: 0 ecology Second, organisms can con
Page 161 and 162: Eldredge, Niles they possess no str
Page 163 and 164: eugenics grieving, or experiencing
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Page 167 and 168: eukaryotes, evolution of of the sor
Page 169 and 170: 0 Eve, mitochondrial within cells,
Page 171 and 172: evolutionary ethics the ability to
Page 173 and 174: evolutionary ethics Can an Evolutio
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evolutionary medicine Can an Evolut
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evolutionary medicine variable in t
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0 extinction past (a genetic bottle
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fishes, evolution of his obvious vi
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Flores Island people Christopher St
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fossils and fossilization The grain
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founder effect Further Reading Fort
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0 Gaia hypothesis nitrogen oxide (N
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Galton, Francis constituted a premi
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gene pool Cocos Island is too small
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Gould, Stephen Jay animals, and the
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Gray, Asa he had long accepted Lyel
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0 group selection used the carbon t
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gymnosperms, evolution of began per
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Haeckel, Ernst (1834-1919) German E
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The initial divergence between homi
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Although Homo ergaster, the presume
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tions were spreading through Africa
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Selected Examples of Homo heidelber
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sunlight of tropical regions, and t
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win, Hooker could not pay his own w
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gene transfer from a bacterium, per
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to evolutionary science. He also ap
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Examples of Intergeneric Crosses Re
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ice ages The term ice ages usually
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America had not been connected sinc
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migrated into Europe and displaced
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ence their intelligence. There is a
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This does not mean that all of the
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e exactly the right ones. Bovine in
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Van Till, Howard J. “E. coli at t
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food particles with whiplike struct
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would readily interbreed and produc
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ased, to eat small plankton near th
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isotopes When evaporation from the
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Java man See Homo erectus. Johanson
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0 Kenyanthropus chemist Henri Becqu
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language, evolution of is not consi
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language, evolution of Italian, Por
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Lascaux caves Some of the original
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Leakey, Richard Richard Leakey, in
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0 life history, evolution of it inv
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life history, evolution of is: sele
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life history, evolution of Why Do H
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life history, evolution of Why Do H
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Linnaean system The tree of life us
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0 living fossils admired. The genus
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Lysenkoism about evolution. When Da
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Malthus, Thomas intelligent design)
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mammals, evolution of the reptilian
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markers another precocious and crea
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0 Mars, life on • The spacecraft
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Maynard Smith, John producing a 200
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meiosis Zoology. He became director
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Mendel, Gregor of the fertilized eg
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Mendelian genetics an American gene
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0 Mendelian genetics the environmen
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microevolution Stanley Miller did o
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missing links Batesian mimicry. Nam
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mitochondrial DNA Hominin skulls ha
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molecular clock these scientists di
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0 mutualism function of the protein
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natural selection Fact 1. Populatio
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natural selection Three types of na
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natural theology different kinds of
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Neandertals different species of hu
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0 Neolithic Neandertals lived short
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new synthesis In contrast to progen
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noncoding DNA Some regulatory molec
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origin of life they refer to life t
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origin of life Are Humans Alone in
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00 origin of life It is often said
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0 Origin of Species (book) ribose);
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0 Orrorin ———. On the Origin
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0 Paley, William in the Chordata) e
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0 peppered moths There remained som
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0 Permian extinction produced in la
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Permian period upon the exploitatio
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Piltdown man found in slightly diff
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plate tectonics The Earth’s surfa
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population Percent of Mammal Genera
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0 population genetics Vandermeer, J
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population genetics If allele A is
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Precambrian time at least some gene
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progress, concept of arboreal prima
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promoter Each chromosome contains t
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0 punctuated equilibria and persist
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punctuated equilibria Gradualism wa
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Quaternary period epoch of the Quat
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ecapitulation would cause some of t
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eligion, evolution of pathogens nev
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0 reproductive systems Catkins of m
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eproductive systems Scobell has inv
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eproductive systems fact, there is
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eptiles, evolution of Blanckenhorn,
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esistance, evolution of ineffective
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0 respiration, evolution of There i
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Sagan, Carl (1934-1996) American As
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tain features are universally recog
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The testing of hypotheses accumulat
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the results are sufficiently intere
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een wrong: His hypothesis of the co
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Comparison of Inherit the Wind with
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and others form more complex struct
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endonuclease gene is then used as a
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e able to do the same thing. Second
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mosomes come in groups of five rath
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eliminated—that is, if sexual rec
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one, free of parasites, is likely t
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nesses of resource acquisition and
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Zahavi, Amotz. The Handicap Princip
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and it is not happening extensively
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this, too, is a genetically based u
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monkeyflowers of the genus Mimulus)
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Further Reading Abrahamson, Warren
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comes from the unfertilized egg, ra
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of the bacteriophages. Therefore, h
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technology Technological and Cultur
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thermodynamics • Plants. The flow
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thermodynamics return to their orig
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00 Triassic period more resulting l
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unconformity An unconformity is a g
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sissippi River is getting shorter e
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ago. This was the birth of the Sun.
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0 vestigial characteristics algae.
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Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823-1913)
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genetic inferiority of the lower cl
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that point onward he questioned the
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Carl R. Woese pioneered the use of
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Darwin’s “One LOng argument”:
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the young seedlings must compete wi
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Traits can reappear after even hund
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ated: It has been an advantage in o
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chapter 10. On the imperfection of
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out in competition with the species
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languages. Linguists classify all R
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My theory has been much maligned. T
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Index Note: Boldface page numbers i
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asexual propagation 370-371 Ashfall
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Bryan, William Jennings creationism
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ird evolution 62-63 cladistics 72-7
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divergence molecular clock 278-279
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extinction 159-160. See also mass e
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Gondwana (Gondwanaland) 68, 84, 86,
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Huxley, Julian S. 200 eugenics 146
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Mendelian genetics and 268 Spencer,
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Origin of Species (Darwin) 433-434
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ocean currents 179, 207 Oceanian re
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polar cells 368 Polkinghorne, John
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Sanger, Frederick 55 Sanger, Margar
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spores 264, 370 spotted hyena (Croc
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useless characteristics 409 Ussher,
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