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F (from among the raptors), which converged upon characteristics (such as bald heads) suitable for eating carrion. Another example is a group of Australian birds that radiated into many species resembling the warblers, flycatchers, creepers, and thrushes of other parts of the world. This example parallels the convergence of Australian marsupial mammals upon the placental mammals of other parts of the world (see mammals, evolution of). Further Reading American Museum of Natural History. “Newly discovered primitive tyrannosaur found to be feathered.” Available online. URL: http://www.amnh.org/science/papers/feathered_tyrannosaur.php. Accessed March 23, 2005. Benton, Michael. “Dinosaur summer.” Chap. 4 in Gould, Stephen Jay, ed., The Book of Life: An Illustrated History of the Evolution of Life on Earth. New York: Norton, 1993. Chiappe, Luis M., and Lawrence M. Wittmer, eds. Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs. Berkeley: University of California, 2002. B A close-up of a fossil of Sinornithosaurus millennii, found in China: C, claws; V, tail vertebrae; B, bony rods; F, feathers. (Courtesy of O. Louis Mazzatenta, National Geographic Society) V C Buffon, Georges ——— and Gareth J. Dyke. “The Mesozoic radiation of birds.” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 33 (2002): 91–124. Gould, Stephen Jay. “Tales of a feathered tail.” Chap. 23 in I Have Landed: The End of a Beginning in Natural History. New York: Harmony, 2002. Norell, Mark. “The dragons of Liaoning.” Discover (June 2005): 58–63. Padian, Kevin, and Luis M. Chiappe. “The origin of birds and their flight.” Scientific American 278 (1998): 38–47. Paul, Gregory S. Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University, 2002. Short, Lester L. The Lives of Birds: Birds of the World and Their Behavior. New York: Henry Holt, 1993. Bryan, William Jennings See Scopes Trial; eugenics. Buffon, Georges (1707–1788) French Naturalist Georges- Louis Leclerc de Buffon (later Comte de Buffon) was born September 7, 1707. He studied mathematics and physics in his
Burgess shale early career. By heating metal spheres and allowing them to cool, Buffon made one of the earliest estimates of the age of the Earth (see age of Earth): it was, he said, between 75,000 and 168,000 years old. He was one of the French scientists who, early in the 18th century, championed a mechanical vision of the world in which matter, operated on by forces such as gravity, could explain all that occurs in the natural world. Buffon’s beliefs conflicted with those of church authorities, but by carefully worded recantations he was able to avoid disaster. Buffon also believed that scientific research should provide some practical benefits to society, which is why he performed research on such topics as forestry. In 1739, Louis XV appointed Buffon the director of the Jardin du Roi (Royal Gardens and Natural History Collections) in Paris. Thousands of plant, animal, and mineral specimens had accumulated in this collection from around the world. Rather than simply cataloging the specimens contained in the natural history collections, Buffon used his position as an opportunity to write a natural history of all plants, animals, and minerals. Beginning in 1749, Buffon and collaborators published the first three volumes of Histoire Naturelle (Natural History), which eventually comprised 36 volumes published over a half century. This work was not yet completed at Buffon’s death. For each animal species in the Natural History, Buffon described internal and external anatomy, life stages, breeding habits and behavior, geographical distribution and variation, economic value, and a summary of the work of previous naturalists. Buffon also included essays that were precursors of the concepts of evolution and of how to define species. He argued that a species consisted of animals that can interbreed and produce offspring, which is very similar to the modern concept of species (see speciation). He performed breeding experiments, for example, between horses and donkeys, and between dogs and wolves. Since they produced hybrid offspring (see hybridization), Buffon concluded that horses and donkeys, and dogs and wolves, shared a common ancestor. He classified animals into categories based on their anatomy, and claimed that “molding forces” of the Earth had modified primitive stocks of animals into the diversity of animal species that exists today. These were early evolutionary concepts. However, he believed that the ability of animals to change was limited to change within the primitive lineages. Even though Buffon’s evolutionary concepts were limited, they were among the earliest serious scholarly proposals that eventually led to Darwin’s evolutionary theory (see Darwin, Charles). The Histoire Naturelle was not entirely an objective work of scientific description. In this book Buffon claimed that North America was a land of stagnant water and unproductive soil, whose animals were small and without vigor because they were weakened by noxious vapors from dark forests and rotting swamps. He claimed that the lack of beards and body hair on the Native Americans indicated a lack of virility and ardor for their females. When Thomas Jefferson was American Ambassador to France, he wanted to prove that Buffon was wrong. Jefferson asked a friend in the American military to shoot a moose and send it to France. It was not a particularly good moose specimen, and Buffon was not impressed. Buffon believed that it was useless to attempt to classify organisms until they had been cataloged and studied completely. This put him in conflict with the Swedish scientist Karl von Linné, who invented the modern taxonomic system (see Linnaeus, Carolus; Linnaean system). Linné, moreover, rejected any evolutionary transition. Legend has it that Linné disliked Buffon enough to name the bullfrog (genus Bufo) after him. This appears to be untrue, as bufo is the Latin word for toad, but the coincidence must have pleased Linné. Buffon’s two principal contributions to evolutionary science were: First, he established the importance of thoroughly assembling information about the natural world before proposing theories about it, a process that is still under way (see biodiversity); second, he brought up the possibility that life had, to at least a limited extent, evolved. He died April 16, 1788. Further Reading Farber, Paul Lawrence. Finding Order in Nature: The Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. Roger, Jacques, Sarah Lucille Bonnefoi, and L. Pearce Williams. Buffon: A Life in Natural History. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997. Burgess shale The Burgess shale is a geological deposit in Canada, from the Cambrian period, in which a large number of soft-bodied organisms are preserved. Today, the Burgess shale is high in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, Canada, but during the Cambrian period it was a relatively shallow ocean floor. About 510 million years ago, mudslides suddenly buried many of these organisms. In part because of the rapid burial in fine sediments, and because of the lack of oxygen, even the soft parts of the organisms (and organisms that had no hard parts) were exquisitely preserved. It therefore provides a window into the biodiversity of the Cambrian period. Other deposits, with specimens similarly preserved, include the Chengjiang deposits in China and the Sirius Passet deposit in northern Greenland. During the Cambrian period, these locations were all tropical, but they were as distant from one another then as they are now. Many of the organisms are similar in all three deposits. Therefore the Burgess shale represents a set of species with nearly worldwide distribution. The Cambrian period was the first period of the Phanerozoic era, when multicellular organisms became common. Prior to the Cambrian period, there were few multicellular organisms aside from the Ediacaran organisms and some seaweeds. The relatively rapid origin of a great diversity of multicellular organisms near the beginning of the Cambrian period has been called the Cambrian explosion. Charles Doolittle Walcott was secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. He was a geologist who had thoroughly explored the high mountains of western North America for many years. He was nearing the end of his career when, in late August of 1909, he discovered the
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Evolution
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Encyclopedia of Evolution Copyright
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Contents Foreword ix Acknowledgment
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Foreword The theory and facts of ev
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IntroduCtIon What you do not know a
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other issues coming along with it.
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adaptation Adaptation is the fit of
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from the allometric patterns of gro
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considered as an example. (The taxo
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English) were a resounding success,
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Some Centers of the Evolution of Ag
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helps the DNA insert into the host
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Page 34 and 35: then into the insect body; carbon d
Page 36 and 37: chromosomes (they are diploid) whil
Page 38 and 39: genetic basis. About 35,000 years a
Page 40 and 41: emained dormant and sprouted after
Page 42 and 43: Further Reading Wise, Steven M. Rat
Page 44 and 45: Because the DNA of many archaebacte
Page 46 and 47: Koi and goldfish have been bred tha
Page 48 and 49: Barringer Crater, Arizona, was form
Page 50 and 51: y a silent wall of darkness advanci
Page 52 and 53: Skeleton of “Lucy,” the Austral
Page 54: Further Reading Alemseged, Zerxenay
Page 57 and 58: acteria, evolution of Examples of t
Page 59 and 60: 0 Bates, Henry Walter advantage. Th
Page 61 and 62: ehavior, evolution of In another sp
Page 63 and 64: ig bang make nests with horizontal
Page 65 and 66: iodiversity How Much Do Genes Contr
Page 67 and 68: iodiversity Biodiversity (as indica
Page 69 and 70: 0 biogeography Another problem with
Page 71 and 72: iogeography Biogeography of Selecte
Page 73 and 74: iogeography their species through d
Page 75 and 76: iology design) or adaptation to the
Page 77 and 78: iology D. Response to environment.
Page 79 and 80: 0 birds, evolution of • The foot.
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Page 87 and 88: Cambrian period occurred when anima
Page 89 and 90: 0 Cenozoic era opens the way to an
Page 91 and 92: Chicxulub Pritchard, J., and Dolph
Page 93 and 94: cladistics The above examples used
Page 95 and 96: coevolution descent, and that scien
Page 97 and 98: coevolution Coevolution of Organism
Page 99 and 100: 0 coevolution What Are the “Ghost
Page 101 and 102: coevolution What Are the “Ghosts
Page 103 and 104: commensalism Wilson, Michael. Micro
Page 105 and 106: continental drift was an animal tha
Page 107 and 108: continental drift During geological
Page 109 and 110: 0 convergence bee-pollinated flower
Page 111 and 112: convergence Both birds and bats hav
Page 113 and 114: creationism explained these observa
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Page 117 and 118: creationism • In the early 21st c
Page 119 and 120: 00 Cretaceous period however, other
Page 121 and 122: 0 Cro-Magnon evolution had occurred
Page 123 and 124: 0 Cro-Magnon areas, perforated shel
Page 125 and 126: 0 Cuvier, Georges Cuvier held stron
Page 127 and 128: 0 Darwin Awards Darwin Awards “Th
Page 129 and 130: 0 Darwin, Charles forever. It would
Page 131 and 132: Darwin, Charles and animals did hav
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Darwin’s finches has its own uniq
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Dawkins, Richard ate the pulp. More
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developmental evolution Part II. In
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0 Devonian period gene from an inve
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dinosaurs what DeVries thought were
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diseases, evolution of • Thyreoph
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disjunct species have happened? Som
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DNA (evidence for evolution) genes,
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0 DNA (evidence for evolution) seco
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DNA (raw material of evolution) DNA
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DNA (raw material of evolution) The
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Dobzhansky, Theodosius Mice have tw
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duplication, gene prominent brow ri
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0 ecology Second, organisms can con
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Eldredge, Niles they possess no str
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eugenics grieving, or experiencing
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eugenics because government officia
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eukaryotes, evolution of of the sor
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0 Eve, mitochondrial within cells,
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evolutionary ethics the ability to
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evolutionary ethics Can an Evolutio
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evolutionary medicine Can an Evolut
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evolutionary medicine variable in t
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0 extinction past (a genetic bottle
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fishes, evolution of his obvious vi
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Flores Island people Christopher St
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fossils and fossilization The grain
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founder effect Further Reading Fort
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0 Gaia hypothesis nitrogen oxide (N
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Galton, Francis constituted a premi
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gene pool Cocos Island is too small
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Gould, Stephen Jay animals, and the
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Gray, Asa he had long accepted Lyel
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0 group selection used the carbon t
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gymnosperms, evolution of began per
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Haeckel, Ernst (1834-1919) German E
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The initial divergence between homi
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Although Homo ergaster, the presume
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tions were spreading through Africa
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Selected Examples of Homo heidelber
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sunlight of tropical regions, and t
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win, Hooker could not pay his own w
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gene transfer from a bacterium, per
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to evolutionary science. He also ap
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Examples of Intergeneric Crosses Re
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ice ages The term ice ages usually
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America had not been connected sinc
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migrated into Europe and displaced
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ence their intelligence. There is a
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This does not mean that all of the
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e exactly the right ones. Bovine in
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Van Till, Howard J. “E. coli at t
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food particles with whiplike struct
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would readily interbreed and produc
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ased, to eat small plankton near th
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isotopes When evaporation from the
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Java man See Homo erectus. Johanson
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0 Kenyanthropus chemist Henri Becqu
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language, evolution of is not consi
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language, evolution of Italian, Por
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Lascaux caves Some of the original
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Leakey, Richard Richard Leakey, in
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0 life history, evolution of it inv
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life history, evolution of is: sele
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life history, evolution of Why Do H
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life history, evolution of Why Do H
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Linnaean system The tree of life us
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0 living fossils admired. The genus
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Lysenkoism about evolution. When Da
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Malthus, Thomas intelligent design)
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mammals, evolution of the reptilian
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markers another precocious and crea
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0 Mars, life on • The spacecraft
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Maynard Smith, John producing a 200
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meiosis Zoology. He became director
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Mendel, Gregor of the fertilized eg
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Mendelian genetics an American gene
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0 Mendelian genetics the environmen
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microevolution Stanley Miller did o
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missing links Batesian mimicry. Nam
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mitochondrial DNA Hominin skulls ha
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molecular clock these scientists di
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0 mutualism function of the protein
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natural selection Fact 1. Populatio
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natural selection Three types of na
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natural theology different kinds of
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Neandertals different species of hu
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0 Neolithic Neandertals lived short
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new synthesis In contrast to progen
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noncoding DNA Some regulatory molec
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origin of life they refer to life t
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origin of life Are Humans Alone in
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00 origin of life It is often said
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0 Origin of Species (book) ribose);
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0 Orrorin ———. On the Origin
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0 Paley, William in the Chordata) e
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0 peppered moths There remained som
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0 Permian extinction produced in la
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Permian period upon the exploitatio
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Piltdown man found in slightly diff
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plate tectonics The Earth’s surfa
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population Percent of Mammal Genera
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0 population genetics Vandermeer, J
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population genetics If allele A is
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Precambrian time at least some gene
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progress, concept of arboreal prima
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promoter Each chromosome contains t
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0 punctuated equilibria and persist
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punctuated equilibria Gradualism wa
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Quaternary period epoch of the Quat
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ecapitulation would cause some of t
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eligion, evolution of pathogens nev
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0 reproductive systems Catkins of m
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eproductive systems Scobell has inv
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eproductive systems fact, there is
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eptiles, evolution of Blanckenhorn,
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esistance, evolution of ineffective
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0 respiration, evolution of There i
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Sagan, Carl (1934-1996) American As
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tain features are universally recog
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The testing of hypotheses accumulat
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the results are sufficiently intere
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een wrong: His hypothesis of the co
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Comparison of Inherit the Wind with
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and others form more complex struct
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endonuclease gene is then used as a
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e able to do the same thing. Second
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mosomes come in groups of five rath
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eliminated—that is, if sexual rec
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one, free of parasites, is likely t
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nesses of resource acquisition and
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Zahavi, Amotz. The Handicap Princip
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and it is not happening extensively
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this, too, is a genetically based u
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monkeyflowers of the genus Mimulus)
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Further Reading Abrahamson, Warren
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comes from the unfertilized egg, ra
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of the bacteriophages. Therefore, h
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technology Technological and Cultur
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thermodynamics • Plants. The flow
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thermodynamics return to their orig
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00 Triassic period more resulting l
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unconformity An unconformity is a g
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sissippi River is getting shorter e
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ago. This was the birth of the Sun.
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0 vestigial characteristics algae.
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Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823-1913)
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genetic inferiority of the lower cl
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that point onward he questioned the
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Carl R. Woese pioneered the use of
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Darwin’s “One LOng argument”:
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the young seedlings must compete wi
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Traits can reappear after even hund
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ated: It has been an advantage in o
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chapter 10. On the imperfection of
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out in competition with the species
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languages. Linguists classify all R
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My theory has been much maligned. T
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Index Note: Boldface page numbers i
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asexual propagation 370-371 Ashfall
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Bryan, William Jennings creationism
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ird evolution 62-63 cladistics 72-7
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divergence molecular clock 278-279
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extinction 159-160. See also mass e
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Gondwana (Gondwanaland) 68, 84, 86,
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Huxley, Julian S. 200 eugenics 146
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Mendelian genetics and 268 Spencer,
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Origin of Species (Darwin) 433-434
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ocean currents 179, 207 Oceanian re
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polar cells 368 Polkinghorne, John
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Sanger, Frederick 55 Sanger, Margar
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spores 264, 370 spotted hyena (Croc
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useless characteristics 409 Ussher,
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