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isotopes When evaporation from the ocean exceeds replacement of water in the ocean, the ratio of O to O increases in the water that remains in the ocean. This can occur when ice buildup occurs on continents.
isotopes food in developed countries. This has caused human bodies to have a measurably higher δ 13 C than those of wild animals, prompting one researcher to call modern humans “corn chips on legs.” Since fossil fuel combustion, burning of forests, and landfills emit methane (CH 4) from biomass that contains a low δ 13 C, the δ 13 C of methane in the atmosphere can serve as an indicator of these processes. Methane from ice cores can therefore indicate the extent of forest fires in the geological past. Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes. Most oxygen atoms in seawater are 16 O, but some are 18 O. Evaporation of water (H 2O) from the ocean surface preferentially removes H 2 16 O, as H 2 18 O is heavier and sinks. The evaporated water returns to the ocean as rain and from rivers. During times of glaciation, much of the H 2 16 O water is trapped in glaciers, and the weather is drier. Sediments that have high 18 O: 16 O ratios were therefore deposited during times of glaciation and aridity (see figure on page 225). A similar process causes water that contains deuterium ( 2 H 2O) to accumulate in ice layers during times of glaciation and aridity. Nitrogen isotopes. Bones of carnivorous animals tend to have more of the heavy isotope of nitrogen ( 15 N) relative to 14 N than do bones of herbivorous animals, since the heavier isotope accumulates with each level of the food chain. The nitrogen isotope ratio provides an indication of an animal’s diet. Sulfur isotopes. Gypsum is calcium sulfate (CaSO 4), usually of inorganic origin. Therefore it usually has a ratio of light sulfur ( 32 S) to heavy sulfur ( 34 S) that is the same as the seawater in which it is formed. However, sulfate-reducing bacteria produce iron pyrite, which precipitates out of the water. The bacterial enzymes that do this prefer 32 S to 34 S. Thus a lower than normal amount of 34 S in a deposit may suggest biological activity. Strontium isotopes. Strontium atoms in seawater replace some of the calcium atoms in limestone. The ratio of heavy Sr ( 87 Sr) to light Sr ( 86 Sr) is always close to 0.71. However, the continents have relatively more of the heavy isotope. Thus, when sedimentary deposits show an increase in heavy Sr, this is taken as an indication of significant erosion from the continents. An increase in the strontium ratio occurred after the melting of the ice of Snowball Earth. It has also been increasing in the sediments around Eurasia for the past 20 million years as a result of the uplift of the Himalayas. Other uses of isotopes. Geologists have used hydrogen isotope measurements from geological deposits to determine the time of mountain uplift. They have also used the buildup of a beryllium isotope on boulder surfaces to determine the timing of glacial retreat. Measurement of helium isotopes in dust allows a determination of how much of the dust has come from outer space. Isotope ratios can also be used as indicators of the geographical origin of deposits. Different oceanic areas have different neodymium ( 143 Nd/ 144 Nd) ratios. The study of neodymium ratios in deposits from the late Quaternary period has allowed the reconstruction of ocean circulation patterns at that time. Isotopes are not the only molecular markers used in the fossil record. Other molecular markers include lipids, which are different in bacteria, archaea, cyanobacteria (which have 2-methylhopanes), and eukaryotes (in which steranes are derived from membrane cholesterol). Different isotope ratios may measure the same phenomenon. Oxygen, hydrogen, and strontium isotope ratios are indicators of the climate that prevailed at the time the deposit was formed. The processes that influence oxygen, hydrogen, and strontium ratios are largely probably independent of one another. Therefore, in the great majority of cases in which oxygen, hydrogen, and strontium ratio estimates agree with one another, they provide independent, therefore believable, estimates of ancient climate. Further Reading Condon, Daniel, et al. “U-Pb ages from the neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation, China.” Science 308 (2005): 95–98. Summary by Kaufman, A. J., in Science 308 (2005): 59–60. Eglinton, G., and R. Pancost. “Immortal molecules.” Geoscientist 14 (2004): 4–16. Lata, J. C., et al. “Short-term diet changes revealed using stable carbon isotopes in horse tailhair.” Functional Ecology 18 (2004): 616–624. Miller, Kenneth G., et al. “The Phanerozoic record of global sea-level change.” Science 310 (2005): 1,293–1,298. Mulch, Andreas, Stephan A. Graham, and C. Page Chamberlain. “Hydrogen isotopes in Eocene river gravels and paleoelevation of the Sierra Nevada.” Science 313 (2006): 87–89. Piotrowski, Alexander M., et al. “Temporal relationships of carbon cycling and ocean circulation at glacial boundaries.” Science 307 (2005): 1,933–1,938. Schaefer, Georg M., et al. “Near-synchronous interhemispheric termination of the last glacial maximum in mid-latitudes.” Science 312 (2006): 1510–1513. Schaefer, Hinrich, et al. “Ice record of δ 13 C for atmospheric CH 4 across the Younger Dryas-Preboreal transition.” Science 313 (2006): 1109–1112. Siegenthaler, Urs, et al. “Stable carbon cycle-climate relationship during the late Pleistocene.” Science 310 (2005): 1,313–1,317.
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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Evolution
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Encyclopedia of Evolution Copyright
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Contents Foreword ix Acknowledgment
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Foreword The theory and facts of ev
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IntroduCtIon What you do not know a
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other issues coming along with it.
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adaptation Adaptation is the fit of
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from the allometric patterns of gro
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considered as an example. (The taxo
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English) were a resounding success,
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Some Centers of the Evolution of Ag
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helps the DNA insert into the host
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Even within a single patient, HIV e
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then into the insect body; carbon d
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chromosomes (they are diploid) whil
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genetic basis. About 35,000 years a
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emained dormant and sprouted after
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Further Reading Wise, Steven M. Rat
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Because the DNA of many archaebacte
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Koi and goldfish have been bred tha
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Barringer Crater, Arizona, was form
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y a silent wall of darkness advanci
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Skeleton of “Lucy,” the Austral
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Further Reading Alemseged, Zerxenay
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acteria, evolution of Examples of t
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0 Bates, Henry Walter advantage. Th
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ehavior, evolution of In another sp
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ig bang make nests with horizontal
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iodiversity How Much Do Genes Contr
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iodiversity Biodiversity (as indica
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0 biogeography Another problem with
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iogeography Biogeography of Selecte
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iogeography their species through d
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iology design) or adaptation to the
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iology D. Response to environment.
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0 birds, evolution of • The foot.
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irds, evolution of • doves and pi
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Burgess shale early career. By heat
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Burgess shale jointed legs, Anomalo
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Cambrian period occurred when anima
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0 Cenozoic era opens the way to an
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Chicxulub Pritchard, J., and Dolph
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cladistics The above examples used
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coevolution descent, and that scien
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coevolution Coevolution of Organism
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0 coevolution What Are the “Ghost
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coevolution What Are the “Ghosts
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commensalism Wilson, Michael. Micro
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continental drift was an animal tha
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continental drift During geological
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0 convergence bee-pollinated flower
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convergence Both birds and bats hav
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creationism explained these observa
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creationism used to justify militar
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creationism • In the early 21st c
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00 Cretaceous period however, other
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0 Cro-Magnon evolution had occurred
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0 Cro-Magnon areas, perforated shel
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0 Cuvier, Georges Cuvier held stron
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0 Darwin Awards Darwin Awards “Th
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0 Darwin, Charles forever. It would
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Darwin, Charles and animals did hav
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Darwin’s finches has its own uniq
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Dawkins, Richard ate the pulp. More
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developmental evolution Part II. In
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0 Devonian period gene from an inve
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dinosaurs what DeVries thought were
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diseases, evolution of • Thyreoph
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disjunct species have happened? Som
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DNA (evidence for evolution) genes,
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0 DNA (evidence for evolution) seco
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DNA (raw material of evolution) DNA
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DNA (raw material of evolution) The
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Dobzhansky, Theodosius Mice have tw
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duplication, gene prominent brow ri
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0 ecology Second, organisms can con
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Eldredge, Niles they possess no str
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eugenics grieving, or experiencing
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eugenics because government officia
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eukaryotes, evolution of of the sor
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0 Eve, mitochondrial within cells,
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evolutionary ethics the ability to
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evolutionary ethics Can an Evolutio
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evolutionary medicine Can an Evolut
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evolutionary medicine variable in t
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0 extinction past (a genetic bottle
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fishes, evolution of his obvious vi
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Flores Island people Christopher St
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fossils and fossilization The grain
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founder effect Further Reading Fort
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0 Gaia hypothesis nitrogen oxide (N
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Galton, Francis constituted a premi
Page 193 and 194: gene pool Cocos Island is too small
Page 195 and 196: Gould, Stephen Jay animals, and the
Page 197 and 198: Gray, Asa he had long accepted Lyel
Page 199 and 200: 0 group selection used the carbon t
Page 201 and 202: gymnosperms, evolution of began per
Page 204 and 205: Haeckel, Ernst (1834-1919) German E
Page 206 and 207: The initial divergence between homi
Page 208 and 209: Although Homo ergaster, the presume
Page 210 and 211: tions were spreading through Africa
Page 212 and 213: Selected Examples of Homo heidelber
Page 214 and 215: sunlight of tropical regions, and t
Page 216 and 217: win, Hooker could not pay his own w
Page 218 and 219: gene transfer from a bacterium, per
Page 220 and 221: to evolutionary science. He also ap
Page 222 and 223: Examples of Intergeneric Crosses Re
Page 224 and 225: ice ages The term ice ages usually
Page 226 and 227: America had not been connected sinc
Page 228 and 229: migrated into Europe and displaced
Page 230 and 231: ence their intelligence. There is a
Page 232 and 233: This does not mean that all of the
Page 234 and 235: e exactly the right ones. Bovine in
Page 236 and 237: Van Till, Howard J. “E. coli at t
Page 238 and 239: food particles with whiplike struct
Page 240 and 241: would readily interbreed and produc
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Page 246: Java man See Homo erectus. Johanson
Page 249 and 250: 0 Kenyanthropus chemist Henri Becqu
Page 251 and 252: language, evolution of is not consi
Page 253 and 254: language, evolution of Italian, Por
Page 255 and 256: Lascaux caves Some of the original
Page 257 and 258: Leakey, Richard Richard Leakey, in
Page 259 and 260: 0 life history, evolution of it inv
Page 261 and 262: life history, evolution of is: sele
Page 263 and 264: life history, evolution of Why Do H
Page 265 and 266: life history, evolution of Why Do H
Page 267 and 268: Linnaean system The tree of life us
Page 269 and 270: 0 living fossils admired. The genus
Page 271 and 272: Lysenkoism about evolution. When Da
Page 273 and 274: Malthus, Thomas intelligent design)
Page 275 and 276: mammals, evolution of the reptilian
Page 277 and 278: markers another precocious and crea
Page 279 and 280: 0 Mars, life on • The spacecraft
Page 281 and 282: Maynard Smith, John producing a 200
Page 283 and 284: meiosis Zoology. He became director
Page 285 and 286: Mendel, Gregor of the fertilized eg
Page 287 and 288: Mendelian genetics an American gene
Page 289 and 290: 0 Mendelian genetics the environmen
Page 291 and 292: microevolution Stanley Miller did o
Page 293 and 294: missing links Batesian mimicry. Nam
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mitochondrial DNA Hominin skulls ha
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molecular clock these scientists di
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0 mutualism function of the protein
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natural selection Fact 1. Populatio
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natural selection Three types of na
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natural theology different kinds of
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Neandertals different species of hu
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0 Neolithic Neandertals lived short
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new synthesis In contrast to progen
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noncoding DNA Some regulatory molec
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origin of life they refer to life t
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origin of life Are Humans Alone in
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00 origin of life It is often said
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0 Origin of Species (book) ribose);
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0 Orrorin ———. On the Origin
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0 Paley, William in the Chordata) e
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0 peppered moths There remained som
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0 Permian extinction produced in la
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Permian period upon the exploitatio
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Piltdown man found in slightly diff
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plate tectonics The Earth’s surfa
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population Percent of Mammal Genera
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0 population genetics Vandermeer, J
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population genetics If allele A is
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Precambrian time at least some gene
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progress, concept of arboreal prima
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promoter Each chromosome contains t
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0 punctuated equilibria and persist
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punctuated equilibria Gradualism wa
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Quaternary period epoch of the Quat
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ecapitulation would cause some of t
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eligion, evolution of pathogens nev
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0 reproductive systems Catkins of m
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eproductive systems Scobell has inv
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eproductive systems fact, there is
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eptiles, evolution of Blanckenhorn,
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esistance, evolution of ineffective
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0 respiration, evolution of There i
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Sagan, Carl (1934-1996) American As
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tain features are universally recog
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The testing of hypotheses accumulat
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the results are sufficiently intere
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een wrong: His hypothesis of the co
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Comparison of Inherit the Wind with
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and others form more complex struct
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endonuclease gene is then used as a
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e able to do the same thing. Second
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mosomes come in groups of five rath
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eliminated—that is, if sexual rec
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one, free of parasites, is likely t
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nesses of resource acquisition and
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Zahavi, Amotz. The Handicap Princip
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and it is not happening extensively
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this, too, is a genetically based u
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monkeyflowers of the genus Mimulus)
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Further Reading Abrahamson, Warren
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comes from the unfertilized egg, ra
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of the bacteriophages. Therefore, h
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technology Technological and Cultur
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thermodynamics • Plants. The flow
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thermodynamics return to their orig
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00 Triassic period more resulting l
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unconformity An unconformity is a g
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sissippi River is getting shorter e
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ago. This was the birth of the Sun.
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0 vestigial characteristics algae.
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Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823-1913)
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genetic inferiority of the lower cl
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that point onward he questioned the
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Carl R. Woese pioneered the use of
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Darwin’s “One LOng argument”:
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the young seedlings must compete wi
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Traits can reappear after even hund
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ated: It has been an advantage in o
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chapter 10. On the imperfection of
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out in competition with the species
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languages. Linguists classify all R
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My theory has been much maligned. T
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Index Note: Boldface page numbers i
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asexual propagation 370-371 Ashfall
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Bryan, William Jennings creationism
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ird evolution 62-63 cladistics 72-7
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divergence molecular clock 278-279
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extinction 159-160. See also mass e
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Gondwana (Gondwanaland) 68, 84, 86,
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Huxley, Julian S. 200 eugenics 146
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Mendelian genetics and 268 Spencer,
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Origin of Species (Darwin) 433-434
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ocean currents 179, 207 Oceanian re
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polar cells 368 Polkinghorne, John
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Sanger, Frederick 55 Sanger, Margar
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spores 264, 370 spotted hyena (Croc
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useless characteristics 409 Ussher,
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