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245 Spatial Relations and Rules Modifying rules according to the symmetry of the shapes they contain is a useful ploy. More generally, though, I can vary the properties of the shapes in rules with basic elements, labels, weights, and so on, to get the outcomes I like. It’s a lot like composing—there’s symmetry, scale, balance, rhythm, color, etc. I’m still surprised at all the things rules do as they apply—with transformations, parts, and adding and subtracting in two easy formulas. That’s all it takes to see and do—just calculating with shapes and rules. Spatial Relations and Rules There’s more to calculating with shapes than symmetrical patterns and fractals or combining shapes and their boundaries. In fact, there are more generic schemas to define rules that include the previous ones with transformations and the boundary operator. And these new schemas are pedagogically effective—they make adding and subtracting explicit in rules before they’re applied. For any two shapes A and B, I can define addition rules in terms of the schema x fi A þ B and subtraction rules in terms of its inverse A þ B fi x where the variable x has either A or B as its value. (Evidently, addition rules—and likewise subtraction rules—are the same whenever the rules A fi B and B fi A are.) The shapes A and B define a spatial relation that determines how to combine shapes. They show how conjugate parts are arranged after I add one, or if I want to take one away and leave the other. But there’s a caveat. A spatial relation is an equivalence relation for decompositions—two are the same when one is a transformation of the other. This is a nice way to describe how shapes go together to define rules in schemas. In fact, it provides a general model of calculating that includes Turing machines. Still, the spatial relation isn’t preserved in the rules it defines. Descriptions have no lasting value, only heuristic appeal. They’re something to use that helps to get started. Then you’re on your own—you’re free to see anything you choose. There’s a lot more to shapes once they fuse than there is when they’re kept apart in spatial relations. (That’s calculating with sets in set grammars, not with shapes in shape grammars.) Let’s see how my twin schemas work. The shape gives some good examples when it’s divided into two squares to define a spatial relation. This keeps to the schema x fi x þ tðxÞ and its inverse, but nothing is lost in the simplification. There are still four distinct rules—two for addition
246 II Seeing How It Works and two for subtraction From the initial square the rules apply to produce alternating squares in a series, with no beginning or end, that’s centered on this segment and any finite combination of these squares that you want for this reason or that—for example, the shape
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SHAPE
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( 2006 Massachusetts Institute of T
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Contents Acknowledgments ix INTRODU
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INTRODUCTION: TELL ME ALL ABOUT IT
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3 Answer Number One—What Do You S
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9 Answer Number Two—Three More Wa
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11 Answer Number Two—Three More W
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33 Trying to Be Clear Points aren
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35 Trying to Be Clear and twenty-fo
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37 Trying to Be Clear things look.
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39 Trying to Be Clear on correspond
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41 Tables, Teacher’s Desks, and R
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43 Tables, Teacher’s Desks, and R
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45 It Always Pays to Look Again In
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47 Background always more when you
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49 Background Getting it first and
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51 Background and not These are the
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53 Background and count as I please
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55 Background and time. The way Eul
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57 Background them apart—a triang
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59 Background without ‘‘agreeme
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62 I What Makes It Visual? (2) What
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64 I What Makes It Visual? Whenever
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66 I What Makes It Visual? calculat
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68 I What Makes It Visual? And my r
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70 I What Makes It Visual? more tha
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72 I What Makes It Visual? Table 1
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74 I What Makes It Visual? but neve
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76 I What Makes It Visual? may be f
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78 I What Makes It Visual? formula
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80 I What Makes It Visual? But what
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82 I What Makes It Visual? they pro
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84 I What Makes It Visual? The one
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86 I What Makes It Visual? I see a
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88 I What Makes It Visual? But this
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90 I What Makes It Visual? contains
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92 I What Makes It Visual? and othe
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94 I What Makes It Visual? The lett
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96 I What Makes It Visual? and corr
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98 I What Makes It Visual? (Is hh i
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100 I What Makes It Visual? and the
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102 I What Makes It Visual? There
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104 I What Makes It Visual? to the
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106 I What Makes It Visual? Table 2
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108 I What Makes It Visual? is trie
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110 I What Makes It Visual? artifac
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112 I What Makes It Visual? and thi
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116 I What Makes It Visual? looks l
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120 I What Makes It Visual? when th
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122 I What Makes It Visual? until t
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124 I What Makes It Visual? The fir
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126 I What Makes It Visual? What Sc
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128 I What Makes It Visual? Here, g
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130 I What Makes It Visual? be desc
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132 I What Makes It Visual? An addi
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134 I What Makes It Visual? forget
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136 I What Makes It Visual? that bl
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138 I What Makes It Visual? Why is
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140 I What Makes It Visual? see wha
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142 I What Makes It Visual? to calc
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144 I What Makes It Visual? How cav
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146 I What Makes It Visual? togethe
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148 I What Makes It Visual? and six
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150 I What Makes It Visual? and its
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152 I What Makes It Visual? these h
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154 I What Makes It Visual? So how
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156 I What Makes It Visual? (TRI(XY
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158 I What Makes It Visual? The fir
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160 II Seeing How It Works was thre
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162 II Seeing How It Works and lowe
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164 II Seeing How It Works Back to
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166 II Seeing How It Works Divide e
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168 II Seeing How It Works There ar
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170 II Seeing How It Works while th
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172 II Seeing How It Works there ar
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174 II Seeing How It Works This has
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176 II Seeing How It Works And noti
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178 II Seeing How It Works looks ex
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180 II Seeing How It Works meaning.
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182 II Seeing How It Works and the
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184 II Seeing How It Works Embeddin
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186 II Seeing How It Works both of
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188 II Seeing How It Works but in a
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190 II Seeing How It Works It’s e
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192 II Seeing How It Works of one i
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296 II Seeing How It Works And, cer
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298 II Seeing How It Works are all
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300 II Seeing How It Works combine
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302 II Seeing How It Works In fact,
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304 II Seeing How It Works next pap
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306 II Seeing How It Works Table 12
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308 II Seeing How It Works initial
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310 II Seeing How It Works Kinemati
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312 III Using It to Design (3) desi
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314 III Using It to Design does mor
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316 III Using It to Design that I d
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318 III Using It to Design don’t
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320 III Using It to Design fix the
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322 III Using It to Design Figure 1
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324 III Using It to Design —divid
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326 III Using It to Design Perhaps
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328 III Using It to Design I seem t
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332 III Using It to Design Then the
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334 III Using It to Design and ‘
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338 III Using It to Design But this
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340 III Using It to Design but occa
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342 III Using It to Design numbers
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344 III Using It to Design to start
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346 III Using It to Design The rule
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348 III Using It to Design Everythi
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352 III Using It to Design Let’s
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354 III Using It to Design ever hav
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356 III Using It to Design (2) Furt
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358 III Using It to Design that wor
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360 III Using It to Design with the
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362 III Using It to Design are equi
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364 III Using It to Design and in f
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366 III Using It to Design to the p
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368 III Using It to Design rules th
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370 III Using It to Design x fi bð
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372 III Using It to Design These we
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374 III Using It to Design easy to
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376 III Using It to Design and spir
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378 III Using It to Design I said I
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380 III Using It to Design include
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382 III Using It to Design x fi x i
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384 III Using It to Design It’s g
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386 III Using It to Design take car
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388 III Using It to Design wealth o
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Notes Introduction 1. S. Pinker, Th
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393 Notes to pp. 48-50 Langer’s d
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395 Notes to pp. 51-55 19. H. L. Dr
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397 Notes to p. 156 9. C. Alexander
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399 Notes to p. 304 of lowest-level
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401 Notes to p. 305 24. The ‘‘n
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403 Notes to pp. 306-387 35. G. Sti
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405 Notes to pp. 388-389 M. A. Bode
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407 Notes to p. 389 The essence in
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410 Index Aristotle, 81, 167, 337 A
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412 Index creativity and (cont.) re
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414 Index greatest lower bound, 224
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416 Index maximal elements and basi
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418 Index Quine, W. V., 57, 58, 210
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420 Index shape grammars (cont.) an
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422 Index Van Gogh, V., 403n1 Vanto
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