Shape

395 Notes to pp. 51–55
19. H. L. Dreyfus, ‘‘Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence’’ (Paper P-3244, RAND Corporation, Santa
Monica, Calif., 1965). H. L. Dreyfus, What Computers Can’t Do (New York: Harper and Row, 1972).
H. L. Dreyfus and S. E. Dreyfus, Mind Over Machine (New York: Free Press, 1986).
20. See, for example, S. Papert, ‘‘The Artificial Intelligence of Hubert L. Dreyfus: a Budget of
Fallacies’’ (AI Memo 154, MIT Project MAC, Cambridge, Mass., 1968).
21. A. Newell, ‘‘Intellectual Issues in the History of Artificial Intelligence,’’ in The Study of Information:
Interdisciplinary Messages, ed. F. Machlup and U. Mansfield (New York: John Wiley and Sons,
1983), 222–223.
22. J. Holland, Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
1995). S. Wolfram, A New Kind of Science (Champaign, Ill.: Wolfram Media, 2002).
23. N. Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (The Hague: Mouton, 1957).
24. Numerous entries in The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences, ed. R. A. Wilson and F. C.
Keil (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999). For a popular account with an aptly combinatorial title
that multiplies the right sides of analogies 1 and 2 on page 18 and flips the result in a two-term
conjunction, see S. Pinker, Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language (New York: Perennial,
2000). And also try the left sides of analogies 1 and 2 to get x and rules. But if x is undefined,
then how do rules work? Surely, this can’t be calculating.
25. A. L. Benton and O. Spreen, Embedded Figures Test: Manual of Instructions and Norms (Victoria,
British Columbia: Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, 1969).
26. After Pinker, Words and Rules, 6.
27. G. Stein, ‘‘Sacred Emily,’’ in Gertrude Stein: Writings 1903–1932 (New York: Library of America,
1998), 395.
28. S. K. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957), 95.
29. G. Stiny, ‘‘Spatial Relations and Grammars,’’ Environment and Planning B 9 (1982): 113–114.
30. I first looked at ways to segment this shape in terms of rotating squares twenty years ago:
G. Stiny, ‘‘A New Line on Drafting Systems,’’ Design Computing 1 (1986): 5–19. Then, I didn’t give
the exact solution. I relied on units of equal length instead, as I must for all of the other shapes in
the series on page 28.
31. H. A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd eds. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,
1969, 1981, 1996).
32. Letters of Euler to a German Princess, vol. II, ed. H. Hunter (London: H. Murray, 1795), 64.
33. For details, see P. J. Federico, Descartes on Polyhedra (New York: Springer, 1982), 65–71.
34. P. Cromwell, 1997, Polyhedra (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 191.
35. E. Panofsky, Albrecht Dürer, vol. 1 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1948), 259–260.
36. W. Blake, ‘‘To George Cumberland 12 April 1827,’’ in Blake: Complete Writings, ed. G. Keynes
(London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 878.
37. C. S. Peirce, ‘‘How to Make Our Ideas Clear,’’ in Charles S. Peirce: Selected Writings (Values in a
Universe of Chance), ed. P. P. Wiener (New York: Dover, 1966), 121–122.
38. Peirce, 123.