Shape

405 Notes to pp. 388–389
M. A. Boden, Dimensions of Creativity (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1994), 86–87. This can be
harmless, perhaps as above, but usually ends with a closed definition of style that stops what
shapes and rules do.
4. Schemas were first defined in terms of a pair of variables in G. Stiny, ‘‘How to Calculate with
Shapes,’’ in Formal Engineering Design Synthesis, ed. E. K. Antonsson and J. Cagan (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001), 48–50.
5. G. Stiny and W. J. Mitchell, ‘‘The Palladian Grammar,’’ Environment and Planning B 5 (1978): 5–
18. G. Stiny and W. J. Mitchell, ‘‘Counting Palladian Plans,’’ Environment and Planning B 5 (1978):
189–198. G. Stiny and J. Gips, ‘‘An Evaluation of Palladian Plans,’’ Environment and Planning B 5
(1978): 199–206.
6. G. Stiny, ‘‘A Note on the Description of Designs,’’ Environment and Planning B 8 (1981): 257–
267.
7. G. Stiny, Pictorial and Formal Aspects of Shape and Shape Grammars.
8. G. Stiny, ‘‘Two Exercises in Formal Composition,’’ Environment and Planning B 3 (1976): 187–
210. G. Stiny, ‘‘Kindergarten Grammars: Designing with Froebel’s Building Gifts,’’ Environment
and Planning B 7 (1980): 409–462.
9. P. Klee, The Thinking Eye, ed. J. Spiller (New York: George Wittenborn, 1961), 71, 98.
10. D. S. Dye, A Grammar of Chinese Lattice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1949),
17, 56, 186, 298–300, 303–304, 308, 340, 424.
11. A. Palladio, The Four Books of Architecture (New York: Dover, 1965).
12. J. S. Ackerman, Palladio (New York: Penguin Books, 1966), 36, 65, 160.
13. L. March, Architectonics of Humanism: Essays on Number in Architecture (New York: Academy
Editions, 1998).
14. T. W. Knight, Transformations in Design (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
15. J. P. Duarte, ‘‘Customizing Mass Housing: A Discursive Grammar for Siza’s Malagueira
Houses’’ (PhD dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2001).
16. A. Li, ‘‘A Shape Grammar for Teaching the Architectural Style of the Yingzao Fashi’’ (PhD dissertation,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2001).
17. G. Stiny and J. Gips, Algorithmic Aesthetics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978).
18. L. March, ‘‘The Logic of Design and the Question of Value,’’ in The Architecture of Form, ed.
L. March (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 1–40.
19. M. Ozkar, ‘‘Uncertainties of Reason: Pragmatist Plurality in Basic Design Education’’ (PhD dissertation,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2004), 65.
20. Ozkar, 70. This takes ‘‘mindful learning’’—I mentioned it in the introduction on page 56: E. J.
Langer, The Power of Mindful Learning (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1997), 23, 108, 114. And
flipping Langer does more. In spite of her jaundiced view of calculating—‘‘In a [mindful state], basic
skills and information guide our behavior in the present, rather than run it like a computer
program.’’—her five-point description of mindfulness is another way to talk about shapes and
rules. Ambiguity is the reason why. It implies mindfulness, even when design is copying and the