ASi" kUCTURE FlOR DEVELOPMENT

straint to their mobility (Figure 1.7) A study of tracted understandable publicattention Yetequally
transport. options in Latin American cities found serious, and more pervasive, is the damage or loss
that in Sao Paulo, Brazil, personal travel by the poor of potential benefits to the environment because of
lad declined more sharply than for any other in- failure to control unnecessary emissions and wastecome
group over a decade-partly because public ful consumption of water. This is due in particular
transport services wvere ill designed for low-income to the underpricing of power, vehicle fuels, and
users. The poorest residents on the periphery of Rio water for irnrgation and municipal uses and to the
de Janeiro spent more of their income than the rich neglect of maintenance. Inadequate maintenance
for transport, with longer waits, less frequent ser- practices leading to inefficient thermnal power genvice,
and more time spent in crowded vehicles. eration account for a large share of energy-related
Appropriate services for the poor are often lack- pollution. Neglect of sound environmental manageing
when decisions on investment and service are ment practices m trmnsport-inlduding safe handriven
by assumptions about a "needs gap' rather ding of hazardous cargos and appropriate disposal
than by an assessment of effective demand. In the of waste from ships, port dredging, and vehide
Makete District in Tanzania, a survey of households maintenance-is a common failing. Unregulated,
undertaken to determine their transport needs in badly designed, or poorly managed municipal
preparation for a proposed investment project re- water and sanitation infrastructure has often been
vealed that improvement of the road network alone one of the biggest sources of urban environtmental
would benefit only a few residents and that com- pollution. The focus of public spending on urban
plementary measures were needed-including solid waste management often stops at collectionsupport
to transport services (the introduction of few developing country cities meet environmental
nonmotorized means of transport to replace head- standards for sanitary landfills.
loading), simple improvements to paths and tracks, Many of the problems in infrasucture perforand
rehabilitation of grinding mills. A retrobpective mance are mutually reinforcing, creating serious
evaluation canied out after completion of the proj- economic and financial costs that make it more diffiect
found that these low-cost improvements were cult for countries to achieve greater coverage and
highly successful-and would likely have been left'. more modem services to better meet social and enout
of the project if no inquiry into tme actual de- virorimental goals. Systemic problems point to sysmand
of the communities had been undertaken. temic causes-and solutions.
NEGLCr oF Tm EsvIRoNmar'r The impact of in- Diagnosis and directions for change
frastructure on the environment has often been very
negative (Box 1.7 recounts one of many examples, T7ie conditions for improved performance: causes
and one where regional cooperation is needed to de- and czares
velop a solution). The highly visible effects of cer-
- -tain large-sce facilities-such as dams and roads Where nastruciure is operated inefficently and
in sensitive ecological areas or where resettlement delivers poor service, the solution cannot be simply
options are unsatisfactory to populations-have at- to tell suppliers to do more maintenance and to
TzIcWe IA Percentage of the poorest and richest population quintiles with access to infrastructure,
various countries
Accss to pubcir wnaer supply Acess to sras Access to electriisy
Pourest Ridicest Powrest Rihest Pcorcst Richest
Cornhtryla/n quintile qintile quintil quintile qurintile quintile
National areas
C6te d'lvoire (1985) 2.4 62.1 3.4 57.0 13.2 74.8
Ghana (1987-88) 105 30.6 0.5 14.6 5.6 46.0
Guatemala (1989) 46.9 86.8 - .. 16.1 86.1
Mexico 0989) 50.2 95.0 14.2 83.2 66.2 99v0
Peru (1985-86) 31.0 82.0 12.3 70.0 22.8 -825
Urban arras
Bolivia (198%9 84.8 89.9 52.6 87.4
. Paraguay (1990) 53.7 88.8 IOA 62.2 94.5 992
- Not available.
SonerCGlewwe 1987a, b; Clewwive and Twum-Baah 1991: World Bank 1993e.
32