Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

202 CHAPTER 5 Learningpositive reinforcementA situation in which a response is followedby the addition of a reinforcing stimulus,increasing the likelihood that the responsewill be repeated in similar situations.negative reinforcementA situation in which a response results inthe removal of, avoidance of, or escapefrom a punishing stimulus, increasing thelikelihood that the response will berepeated in similar situations.primary reinforcerA stimulus or event that is naturally orinherently reinforcing for a given species,such as food, water, or other biologicalnecessities.conditioned reinforcerA stimulus or event that has acquiredreinforcing value by being associated with aprimary reinforcer; also called a secondaryreinforcer.Both positive and negative reinforcementincrease the likelihood of a behavior beingrepeated. Positive reinforcement involvesa behavior that leads to a reinforcing orrewarding event. In contrast, negativereinforcement involves behavior that leadsto the avoidance of or escape from anaversive or punishing event. Ultimately,both positive and negative reinforcementinvolve outcomes that strengthen futurebehavior.Positive and Negative ReinforcementThere are two forms of reinforcement: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.Both affect future behavior, but they do so in different ways (see Table 5.1).It’s easier to understand these differences if you note at the outset that Skinner didnot use the terms positive and negative in their everyday sense of meaning “good”and “bad” or “desirable” and “undesirable.” Instead, think of the words positive andnegative in terms of their mathematical meanings. Positive is the equivalent of a plussign (), meaning that something is added. Negative is the equivalent of a minussign (), meaning that something is subtracted or removed. If you keep that distinctionin mind, the principles of positive and negative reinforcement should beeasier to understand.Positive reinforcement involves following an operant with the addition of areinforcing stimulus. In positive reinforcement situations, a response is strengthenedbecause something is added or presented. Everyday examples of positive reinforcementin action are easy to identify. Here are some examples:• Your backhand return of the tennis ball (the operant) is low and fast, and yourtennis coach yells “Excellent!” (the reinforcing stimulus).• You watch a student production of Hamlet and write a short paper about it (theoperant) for 10 bonus points (the reinforcing stimulus) in your literature class.• You reach your sales quota at work (the operant) and you get a bonus check (thereinforcing stimulus).In each example, if the addition of the reinforcing stimulus has the effect of makingyou more likely to repeat the operant in similar situations in the future, then positivereinforcement has occurred.It’s important to point out that what constitutes a reinforcing stimulus can varyfrom person to person, species to species, and situation to situation. While gold starsand stickers may be reinforcing to a third-grader, they would probably have littlereinforcing value to your average high school student. As Skinner (1953) explained,“The only way to tell whether or not a given event or stimulus is reinforcing to agiven organism under given conditions is to make a direct test.”It’s also important to note that the reinforcing stimulus is not necessarilysomething we usually consider positive or desirable. For example, most teacherswould not think of a scolding as being a reinforcing stimulus to children. But tochildren, adult attention can be a powerful reinforcing stimulus. If a child receivesattention from the teacher only when he misbehaves, then the teacher may unwittinglybe reinforcing misbehavior. The child may actually increase disruptive behaviorin order to get the sought-after reinforcing stimulus—adult attention—even if it’s in the form of being scolded. To reduce the child’s disruptive behavior,the teacher would do better to reinforce the child’s appropriate behavior by payingattention to him when he’s not being disruptive, such as when he is workingquietly.Negative reinforcement involves an operant that is followed by the removal of anaversive stimulus. In negative reinforcement situations, a response is strengthenedbecause something is being subtracted or removed. Remember that the word negativein the phrase negative reinforcement is used like a mathematical minus sign ().Table 5.1Comparing Positive and Negative ReinforcementProcess Operant Consequence Effect on BehaviorPositive Studying to make Make dean’s list Increase studyingreinforcement dean’s list in the futureNegative Studying to avoid Avoid loss of Increase studyingreinforcement losing academic academic scholarship in the futurescholarship