Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

B-8 APPENDIX B Industrial/Organizational Psychologydiscrepancy hypothesisAn approach to explaining job satisfactionthat focuses on the discrepancy, if any, betweenwhat a person wants from a job andhow that person evaluates what is actuallyexperienced at work.trait approach to leader effectivenessAn approach to determining what makesan effective leader that focuses on the personalcharacteristics displayed by successfulleaders.Several approaches have been used to explain differences in job satisfaction. Anearly approach was based on a discrepancy hypothesis, which consists of threeideas: (1) that people differ in what they want from a job; (2) that people differ inhow they evaluate what they experience at work; and (3) that job satisfaction isbased on the difference between what is desired and what is experienced (Lawler,1973; Locke, 1976). Lucy and Jane, for instance, may not only want differentthings from their jobs; they may also make different assessments of the same eventsat work. Although their supervisor may treat them in the same encouraging manner,Lucy may see the boss’s encouragement as supportive while Jane may view it ascondescending. As a result, one perceives a discrepancy between desires and experiences,whereas the other does not.Consequent research supported the discrepancy hypothesis. For example, negativediscrepancies (getting less than desired) were found to be related to dissatisfaction.Interestingly, positive discrepancies (getting more than desired) were alsorelated to dissatisfaction in some cases (Rice & others, 1989). As an example, youmight be dissatisfied with a job because it involves more contact with customersthan you wanted or expected.However, other factors have been identified as contributing to job satisfaction.The 2007 SHRM Job Satisfaction Survey lists compensation, benefits, job security,work–life balance, and communication between employees and senior managementas the current top five “very important” job satisfaction aspects for employees(Lockwood, 2007).What Makes a Leader? Nelson Mandela isan extraordinarily charismatic leader. Hekept his political organization, the AfricanNational Congress, functioning during his27 years of imprisonment and guided SouthAfrica out of its racist apartheid systemwith a minimum of violence and turmoil.LeadershipI/O psychologists have invested extensive energy searching for the formula for agreat leader. Leaders are those who have the ability to direct groups toward theattainment of organizational goals. There are several classic theories that shapedour early views of leadership. The trait approach to leader effectiveness, oneof the earliest theories, was based on the idea that great leaders are born, notmade. This approach assumed that leaders possess certain qualities or characteristicsresulting in natural abilities to lead others. Some examples of these “natural-born”leaders included John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jr., and NelsonMandela. A large number of traits—such as height, physical attractiveness,dominance, resourcefulness, and intelligence—wereexamined for connectionsto leader effectiveness. A substantialamount of trait research wasinitially conducted, much of it showinglittle connection between personaltraits and leader effectiveness (Hollander& Julian, 1969; Stogdill, 1948).Recent trait research continues, withsome studies identifying traits, such asemotional intelligence, that can have apositive impact on employee behavior(Rego & others, 2007). Unfortunately,to date, trait researchers stillhaven’t found a comprehensive “leadershiprecipe.”Consequently the emphasis turnedto another explanation for effectiveleadership. Could leaders be made?Could they be taught “leadership behaviors”that would make them moreeffective? Researchers exploring the