Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

Descriptive Research Methods23Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.CARL SAGANStrategy 2: Scientific jargon without scientific substancePseudoscientific claims are littered with scientific jargon to maketheir claims seem more credible. Vague references are made to“controlled studies,” “scientific evidence,” “scientists at a leadinguniversity,” and so on. The ad copy may also be littered withscientific-sounding terms, such as “bio-magnetic balance” orimpressive sounding scientific terms that, when examined, turnout to be meaningless.Strategy 3: Combining established scientific knowledgewith unfounded claimsPseudosciences often mention well-known scientific facts to addcredibility to their unsupported claims. For example, the magnettherapy spiel often starts by referring to the properties of theearth’s magnetic field, the fact that blood contains minerals andiron, and so on. To further strengthen the illusion of scientificcredibility, established scientific procedures are mentioned, suchas magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Or, they mention procedurescurrently being scientifically developed, such as transcranialmagnetic stimulation (TMS). For the record, MRI and TMS donot use static magnets, which are the type sold at magnet therapyWeb sites.Strategy 4: Irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claimsConsider this claim: Magnet therapy restores the natural magneticbalance required by the body’s healing process. How couldyou test that claim? An irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claim is onethat cannot be disproved or tested in any meaningful way. Theirrefutable claims of pseudosciences typically take the form ofbroad or vague statements that are essentially meaningless.Strategy 5: Confirmation biasScientific conclusions are based on converging evidence frommultiple studies, not a single study. Pseudosciences ignore thisprocess and instead trumpet the findings of a single study thatseems to support their claims. In doing so, they do not mentionall the other studies that tested the same thing but yieldedresults that failed to support the claim. This illustrates confirmationbias—the tendency to seek out evidence that confirms aclaim or belief, while ignoring evidence that contradicts or underminesthe claim or belief. When disconfirming evidence ispointed out, it is ignored or explained away.Strategy 6: Shifting the burden of proofIn science, the responsibility for proving the validity of a claimrests with the person making the claim. Many pseudosciences,however, shift the burden of proof to the skeptic. If you expressskepticism about a pseudoscientific claim, the pseudoscience advocatewill challenge you to disprove their claim.Strategy 7: Multiple outsWhat happens when pseudosciences fail to deliver on theirpromised benefits? Typically, multiple excuses are offered.Brenda’s son, for example, did not experience any benefits fromwearing the magnetic vest. Here are just some of the reasonsgiven when magnet therapy fails to work:• Magnets act differently on different body parts.• The magnet was placed in the wrong spot.• Everyone's body will respond differently to magnet therapy.• The magnets were the wrong type, size, shape, etc.• The magnets weren’t strong enough.• The magnets weren’t worn long enough.• The healing effect may not occur until after you stop usingthe magnets.One of our goals in this text is to help you develop your scientificthinking skills so you’re better able to evaluate claims aboutbehavior or mental processes, especially claims that seem farfetchedor too good to be true. In this chapter, we’ll look at thescientific methods used to test hypotheses and claims. And inthe Science Versus Pseudoscience boxes in later chapters, you’llsee how various pseudoscience claims have stood up to scientificscrutiny. We hope you enjoy this feature!Case studies are also used in psychological research investigating rare, unusual,or extreme conditions. These kinds of case studies often provide psychologists withinformation that can be used to help understand normal behavior. For example, theChapter 3 Prologue features the story of Mike May, who partially regained his sightafter being blind since early childhood. You’ll read how the information gainedfrom extensive testing of Mike’s brain and visual abilities has provided insights intobrain and visual development in normally sighted individuals.The case study method can also be used to study more than one individual.In case-based research, information from multiple case studies is systematicallycombined and analyzed (Edwards & others, 2004). Case-based research can beparticularly valuable in clinical psychology, where it can be used to evaluate andimprove treatment strategies for people with specific psychological disorders.