Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality431Adler (1933b) believed that the most fundamental human motive is striving forsuperiority—the desire to improve oneself, master challenges, and move towardself-perfection and self-realization. Striving toward superiority arises from universalfeelings of inferiority that are experienced during infancy and childhood, whenthe child is helpless and dependent on others. These feelings motivate people tocompensate for their real or imagined weaknesses by emphasizing their talents andabilities and by working hard to improve themselves. Hence, Adler (1933a) sawthe universal human feelings of inferiority as ultimately constructive and valuable.However, when people are unable to compensate for specific weaknesses or whentheir feelings of inferiority are excessive, they can develop an inferiority complex—ageneral sense of inadequacy, weakness, and helplessness. People with an inferioritycomplex are often unable to strive for mastery and self-improvement.At the other extreme, people can overcompensate for their feelings of inferiorityand develop a superiority complex. Behaviors caused by a superiority complex mightinclude exaggerating one’s accomplishments and importance in an effort to coverup weaknesses and denying the reality of one’s limitations (Adler, 1954).Like Horney, Adler believed that humans were motivated to grow and achievetheir personal goals. And, like Horney, Adler emphasized the importance of culturalinfluences and social relationships (Carlson & others, 2008).Evaluating Freud and the PsychoanalyticPerspective on PersonalityLike it or not, Sigmund Freud’s ideas have had a profound and lasting impact on ourculture and on our understanding of human nature (see Merlino & others, 2008).Today, opinions on Freud span the entire spectrum. Some see him as a genius whodiscovered brilliant, lasting insights into human nature. Others contend that Freudwas a deeply neurotic, driven man who successfully foisted his twisted personal viewof human nature onto an unsuspecting public (Crews, 1984, 1996, 2006).The truth, as you might suspect, lies somewhere in between. Although Freud hashad an enormous impact on psychology and on society, there are several valid criticismsof Freud’s theory and, more generally, of the psychoanalytic perspective.We’ll discuss three of the most important problems next.Inadequacy of EvidenceFreud’s theory relies wholly on data derived from his relativelysmall number of patients and from self-analysis. Mostof Freud’s patients were relatively well-to-do, well-educatedmembers of the middle and upper classes in Vienna at thebeginning of the twentieth century. Freud (1916, 1919,1939) also analyzed the lives of famous historical figures,such as Leonardo da Vinci, and looked to myth, religion,literature, and evolutionary prehistory for confirmation ofhis ideas. Any way you look at it, this is a small and ratherskewed sample from which to draw sweeping generalizationsabout human nature.Furthermore, it is impossible to objectively assess Freud’s“data.” Freud did not take notes during his private therapysessions. And, of course, when he did report a case in detail,it is still Freud’s interpretation of the case that is recorded.For Freud, proof of the validity of his ideas depended on hisuncovering similar patterns in different patients. So the criticalquestion is this: Was Freud imposing his own ideas ontohis patients, seeing only what he expected to see? Some criticsthink so (e.g., Grünbaum, 2006, 2007).To be a human being means to haveinferiority feelings. One recognizesone’s own powerlessness in the faceof nature. One sees death as theirrefutable consequence of existence.But in the mentally healthy person thisinferiority feeling acts as a motive forproductivity, as a motive for attempt -ing to overcome obstacles, to maintainoneself in life.ALFRED ADLER (1933a)A Century of Influence Oneindicator of Freud’s influenceis that he appearedon the cover of Time magazinefour different times—in 1924, just before hisdeath in 1939, in 1993, andagain in 1999. The 1999cover shown here, a caricatureof Freud psychoanalyzingAlbert Einstein, was aspecial issue of Time commemoratingthe 100 greatestscientists and thinkersof the twentieth century.