Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

320 CHAPTER 8 Motivation and EmotionTable 8.1James’s List of Human InstinctsAttachmentFearDisgustRivalryGreedinessSuspicionHuntingPlayShameAngerResentmentCuriosityShynessSociabilityBashfulnessSecretivenessCleanlinessModestyLoveParental LoveIn his famous text, Principles of Psychology,William James (1890) devoted a lengthychapter to the topic of instinct. With an airof superiority, James noted that “no othermammal, not even the monkey, shows solarge an array of instincts” as humans. Thetable shows some of the human instinctsidentified by James.display automatic and innate instinctual behavior patterns called fixed action patterns,such as migration or mating rituals, human behavior was also thought to be motivatedby inborn instinctual behavior patterns.Inspired by Charles Darwin’s (1859, 1871) landmark theory of evolution, earlypsychologists like William James and William McDougall (1908) devised lists ofhuman instincts. Table 8.1 lists some of the human instincts that William James(1890) included in his famous text, Principles of Psychology.By the early 1900s, thousands of instincts had been proposed in one expert’s listor another to account for just about every conceivable human behavior (Bernard,1924). (The early instinct theorists were, no doubt, motivated by a “listinginstinct.”) But what does it mean to say that an assertive person has a “self-assertioninstinct”? Or to say that our friend Richard had a “diving instinct”? The obviousproblem with the early instinct theories was that merely describing and labelingbehaviors did not explain them.By the 1920s, instinct theories had fallen out of favor as an explanation of humanmotivation, primarily because of their lack of explanatory power. But the more generalidea that some human behaviors are innate and genetically influenced remainedan important element in the overall understanding of motivation. Today, psychologiststaking the evolutionary perspective consider how our evolutionary heritage mayinfluence patterns of human behaviors, such as eating behaviors or the expression ofemotions. We’ll consider what the evolutionary perspective has to say about both ofthose examples later in the chapter.Motivation and Drive Theories Accordingto drive theories of motivation, behavior ismotivated by biological drives to maintainhomeostasis, or an optimal internal balance.After a long soccer practice on a hotday, these high school students are motivatedto rest, cool off, and drink water.Drive theories of motivation are useful inexplaining biological motives like hunger,thirst, and fatigue, but are less useful inexplaining psychological motives. For example,how could we explain their motivationto play competitive soccer? To practicelong and hard on a hot summer day?Drive TheoriesBiological Needs as MotivatorsBeginning in the 1920s, instinct theories were replaced by drive theories. In general,drive theories asserted that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internaltension caused by unmet biological needs, such as hunger or thirst. The basicidea was that these unmet biological needs “drive” or “push” us to behave incertain ways that will lead to a reduction in the drive. When a particular behaviorsuccessfully reduces a drive, the behavior becomes more likely to be repeated whenthe same need state arises again.Leading drive theorists, including psychologists Robert S. Woodworth (1918,1921) and Clark L. Hull (1943, 1952), believed that drives are triggered by theinternal mechanisms of homeostasis. The principle of homeostasis states that thebody monitors and maintains relatively constant levels of internal states, such asbody temperature, fluid levels, and energy supplies. If any of these internal conditionsdeviates very far from the optimal level, the body initiates processes to bringthe condition back to the normal or optimal range. Thus, the body automaticallytries to maintain a “steady state,” which is what homeostasis means.According to drive theorists, when an internal imbalance is detectedby homeostatic mechanisms, a drive to restore balance is produced.The drive activates behavior to reduce the need and to reestablish thebalance of internal conditions. For example, after you have not eatenanything for several hours, this unmet biological need creates a drivestate—hunger—that motivates or energizes your behavior. And howmight the drive of hunger energize you to behave? You might makeyour way to the kitchen and forage in the refrigerator for some leftoverguacamole dip or chocolate cake.Today, the drive concept remains useful in explaining motivated behaviorsthat clearly have biological components, such as hunger, thirst,and sexuality. However, drive theories also have limitations. Let’s considerhunger again. Is the motivation of eating behavior strictly a matterof physiological need? Obviously not. People often eat when they’re nothungry and don’t eat when they are hungry. And how could drive theoriesaccount for the motivation to buy a lottery ticket or run a marathon?