Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

Operant Conditioning203For example, you take two aspirin (the operant)to remove a headache (the aversivestimulus). Thirty minutes later, theheadache is gone. Are you now more likelyto take aspirin to deal with bodily aches andpain in the future? If you are, then negativereinforcement has occurred.Aversive stimuli typically involve physicalor psychological discomfort that an organismseeks to escape or avoid. Consequently,behaviors are said to be negatively reinforced when they let you either (1) escape aversivestimuli that are already present or (2) avoid aversive stimuli before they occur.That is, we’re more likely to repeat the same escape or avoidance behaviors in similarsituations in the future. The headache example illustrates the negative reinforcementof escape behavior. By taking two aspirin, you “escaped” the headache. Payingyour electric bill on time to avoid a late charge illustrates the negative reinforcementof avoidance behavior. Here are some more examples of negative reinforcement involvingescape or avoidance behavior:• You make backup copies of important computer files (the operant) to avoidlosing the data if the computer’s hard drive should fail (the aversive stimulus).• You dab some hydrocortisone cream on an insect bite (the operant) to escapethe itching (the aversive stimulus).• You get a flu shot (the operant) in November to avoid catching the flu (theaversive stimulus).In each example, if escaping or avoiding the aversive event has the effect of makingyou more likely to repeat the operant in similar situations in the future, then negativereinforcement has taken place.Primary and Conditioned ReinforcersSkinner also distinguished two kinds of reinforcing stimuli: primary and conditioned.A primary reinforcer is one that is naturally reinforcing for a given species.That is, even if an individual has not had prior experience with the particular stimulus,the stimulus or event still has reinforcing properties. For example, food,water, adequate warmth, and sexual contact are primary reinforcers for most animals,including humans.A conditioned reinforcer, also called a secondary reinforcer, is one that has acquiredreinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer. The classic example ofa conditioned reinforcer is money. Money is reinforcing not because those flimsy bitsof paper and little pieces of metal have value in and of themselves, but because we’velearned that we can use them to acquire primary reinforcers and other conditioned reinforcers.Awards, frequent-flyer points, and college degrees are just a few other examplesof conditioned reinforcers.Conditioned reinforcers need not be as tangible as money or college degrees.The respect of your peers and the approval of your instructors or managers can beNegative Reinforcement What behavior isbeing negatively reinforced? If you’rehaving trouble answering this question,first identify the aversive stimulus.Types of Reinforcers Primary reinforcers,like water when you’re thirsty, are naturallyreinforcing—you don’t have to learntheir value. In contrast, the value of conditionedreinforcers, like grades andawards, has to be learned through theirassociation with primary reinforcers. Butconditioned reinforcers can be just as reinforcingas primary reinforcers. As proof,a beaming Michael Phelps displays one ofthe eight gold medals he earned for theUnited States at the 2008 summerOlympics in Beijing, China.