Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

218 CHAPTER 5 LearningTable 5.5Comparing Classical and Operant ConditioningClassical ConditioningOperant ConditioningType of behavior Reflexive, involuntary behaviors Nonreflexive, voluntary behaviorsSource of behavior Elicited by stimulus Emitted by organismBasis of learning Associating two stimuli: CS UCS Associating a response and the consequence that follows itResponses conditioned Physiological and emotional responses Active behaviors that operate on the environmentExtinction process Conditioned response decreases when conditioned Responding decreases with elimination of reinforcingstimulus is repeatedly presented aloneconsequencesCognitive aspects Expectation that CS reliably predicts the UCS Performance of behavior influenced by the expectationof reinforcement or punishmentEvolutionary influences Innate predispositions influence how easily Behaviors similar to natural or instinctive behaviorsan association is formed between a particular are more readily conditionedstimulus and responseThe biological predisposition to perform such natural behaviors was strongenough to overcome the lack of reinforcement. These instinctual behaviors alsoprevented the animals from engaging in the learned behaviors that would result inreinforcement. Clearly, reinforcement is not the sole determinant of behavior. And,inborn or instinctive behavior patterns can interfere with the operant conditioningof arbitrary responses.Before you go on to the next section, take a few minutes to review Table 5.5 andmake sure you understand the differences between classical and operant conditioning.Observational LearningImitating the Actions of OthersKey Theme• In observational learning, we learn through watching and imitating thebehaviors of others.Key Questions• How did Albert Bandura demonstrate the principles of observationallearning?• What four mental processes are involved in observational learning?• How has observational learning been shown in nonhuman animals?observational learningLearning that occurs through observing theactions of others.mirror neuronsA type of neuron that activates both whenan action is performed and when the sameaction is perceived.Classical conditioning and operant conditioning emphasize the role of direct experiencesin learning, such as directly experiencing a reinforcing or punishing stimulusfollowing a particular behavior. But much human learning occurs indirectly, bywatching what others do, then imitating it. In observational learning, learningtakes place through observing the actions of others.Humans develop the capacity to learn through observation at a very early age.Studies of 21-day-old infants have shown that they will imitate a variety of actions,including opening their mouths, sticking out their tongues, and making other facialexpressions (Field & others, 1982; Meltzoff & Moore, 1977, 1983). In fact, evennewborn infants can imitate adult expressions when they are less than an hour old(Meltzoff & Moore, 1989; Meltzoff, 2007). Clearly, the human brain is wired forimitation. The Focus on Neuroscience describes a fascinating new discovery thatmay shed some light on the brain mechanisms that support our ability to learnthrough observation.