Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

Operant Conditioning205Table 5.3Types of Reinforcement and PunishmentReinforcing stimulus Aversive stimulusStimulus presented Positive reinforcement Positive punishmentThis table provides a simple way of identifyingthe type of reinforcement or punishmentbased on whether a reinforcing oran aversive stimulus is presented orremoved following an operant.Stimulus removed Negative punishment Negative reinforcementThe second type of punishment is punishment by removal, also called negativepunishment. The word negative indicates that some stimulus is subtracted orremoved from the situation (see Table 5.3). In this case, it is the loss or withdrawalof a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior. That is, the behavior’s consequenceis the loss of some privilege, possession, or other desirable object or activity. Hereare some everyday examples of punishment by removal:• After she buys stock (the operant) in a “hot” new start-up company, the companyfails and the investor loses all of her money (loss of reinforcing stimulus).• Because he was flirting with another woman (the operant), a guy gets dumpedby his girlfriend (loss of reinforcing stimulus).In each example, if the behavior decreases in response to the removal of the reinforcingstimulus, then punishment has occurred. It’s important to stress that, likereinforcement, punishment is defined by the effect it produces. In everyday usage,people often refer to a particular consequence as a punishment when, strictly speaking,it’s not. Why? Because the consequence has not reduced future occurrences ofthe behavior. Hence, many consequences commonly thought of as punishments—being sent to prison, fined, reprimanded, ridiculed, or fired from a job—fail to reducea particular behavior.Why is it that aversive consequences don’t always function as effective punishments?Skinner (1953) as well as other researchers have noted that several factors influencethe effectiveness of punishment (see Axelrod & Apsche, 1983; Kazdin, 2001). Forexample, punishment is more effective if it immediately follows a response than if itis delayed. Punishment is also more effective if it consistently, rather than occasionally,follows a response. Though speeding tickets and prison sentences are commonlyreferred to as punishments, these aversive consequences are inconsistently applied andoften administered only after a long delay. Thus, they don’t always effectively decreasespecific behaviors.Even when punishment works, its use has several drawbacks. First, punishmentmay decrease a specific response, but it doesn’t necessarily teach or promote amore appropriate response to take its place.Second, punishment that is intense may produceundesirable results, such as complete passivity,fear, anxiety, or hostility (Skinner,1974). Finally, the effects of punishment arelikely to be temporary (Estes & Skinner,1941; Skinner, 1938). A child who is sent toher room for teasing her little brother maywell repeat the behavior when her mother’sback is turned. As Skinner (1971) noted,“Punished behavior is likely to reappear afterthe punitive consequences are withdrawn.”For some suggestions on how to change behaviorwithout using a punishing stimulus, seethe In Focus box, “Changing the Behavior ofOthers: Alternatives to Punishment.”The Effects of Spanking Defined as hittinga child on the buttocks with an open handwithout causing a bruise or physical harm,spanking is a common form of discipline inthe United States (Kazdin & Benjet, 2003).Some researchers believe that mild andoccasional spanking is not necessarily harmful,especially when used as a backup forother forms of discipline (Baumrind &others, 2002).However, in a wide-ranging metaanalysis,psychologist Elizabeth Gershoff(2002) concluded that physical punishmentis associated with increased aggressiveness,delinquency, and antisocial behavior in thechild. Other negative effects include poorparent–child relationships and an increasedrisk that parental disciplinary tactics mightescalate into physical abuse. As Skinner(1974) cautioned, gaining immediatecompliance through punishment must beweighed against punishment’s negativelong-term effects.