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Adolescence399that by the age of 12, about one-quarter of adolescents reported having hada “special romantic relationship.” By age 15, that percentage increased to 50percent, and reached 70 percent by the age of 17 (Carver & others, 2003).Social and cultural factors also influence when, why, and how an adolescentinitiates sexual behaviors. The beginning of dating, for example, coincidesmore strongly with cultural and social expectations and norms, such aswhen friends begin to date, than with an adolescent’s degree of physical maturation(see Collins, 2003).Far from being trivial, shallow, or transitory, romantic relationships can havea significant impact on the adolescent’s psychological and social development(Furman, 2002). In terms of emotional impact, adolescents who are involvedin a romantic relationship are more prone to mood swings and, especially whenthe relationship is a stormy one, depression (Joyner & Udry, 2000). However,by late adolescence, romantic relationships can also lead to overall feelings of enhancedself-worth, feelings of competence, and enhanced relationships with friends and peers(Furman & Shaffer, 2003; Zimmer-Gembeck & Gallaty, 2006).The physical and social developments we’ve discussed so far are the more obviouschanges associated with the onset of puberty. No less important, however, arethe cognitive changes that allow the adolescent to think and reason in new, morecomplex ways.Peer Relationships in AdolescenceAlthough parents often worry about thenegative impact of peers, peers can alsohave a positive influence on one another.These teenage volunteers are attendinga leadership conference for Drug FreeYouth in Town, a national communitybasedorganization that works to preventsubstance abuse in children and teens.Identity Formation: Erikson’s Theoryof Psychosocial DevelopmentWhen psychologists talk about a person’s identity, they are referring to the values,beliefs, and ideals that guide the individual’s behavior (Erikson, 1964a; Marcia,1991). Our sense of personal identity gives us an integrated and continuing senseof self over time. Identity formation is a process that continues throughout the life -span. As we embrace new and different roles over the course of our lives, we defineourselves in new ways (Erikson & others, 1986; Grotevant, 1992).For the first time in the lifespan, the adolescent possesses the cognitive skills necessaryfor dealing with identity issues in a meaningful way (Habermas & Bluck, 2000;Krettenauer, 2005). Beginning in early adolescence, self-definition shifts. Preadolescentchildren tend to describe themselves in very concrete social and behavioral terms.An 8-year-old might describe himself by saying, “I play with Mark and I like to ridemy bike.” In contrast, adolescents use more abstract self-descriptions that reflect personalattributes, values, beliefs, and goals (Harter, 1990). Thus, a 14-year-old mightsay, “I have strong religious beliefs, love animals, and hope to become a veterinarian.”Some aspects of personal identity involve characteristics over which the adolescentreally has no control, such as gender, race, ethnic background, and socioeconomiclevel. In effect, these identity characteristics are fixed and already internalized by thetime an individual reaches the adolescent years.Beyond such fixed characteristics, the adolescent begins to evaluate herself onseveral different dimensions. Social acceptance by peers, academic and athletic abilities,work abilities, personal appearance, and romantic appeal are some importantaspects of self-definition. Another challenge facing the adolescent is to develop anidentity that is independent of her parents while retaining a sense of connection toher family. Thus, the adolescent has not one but several self-concepts that she mustintegrate into a coherent and unified whole to answer the question “Who am I?”The adolescent’s task of achieving an integrated identity is one important aspectof psychoanalyst Erik Erikson’s influential theory of psychosocial development.Briefly, Erikson (1968) proposed that each of eight stages of life is associated witha particular psychosocial conflict that can be resolved in either a positive or a negativedirection (see Table 9.4). Relationships with others play an important role indetermining the outcome of each conflict. According to Erikson, the key psychosocialconflict facing adolescents is identity versus role confusion.Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson Erikson (1902–1994) is shown here with his wife, Joan, in1988. Erikson’s landmark theory of psycho -social development stressed the importanceof social and cultural influences on personalitythroughout the stages of life.