Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

436 CHAPTER 10 Personality“I do not value your behavior right now, but I still love and value you.” In this way,according to Rogers, the child’s essential sense of self-worth can remain intact.Rogers (1957b) believed that it is through consistent experiences of unconditionalpositive regard that one becomes a psychologically healthy, fully functioning person.The fully functioning person has a flexible, constantly evolving self-concept. She is realistic,open to new experiences, and capable of changing in response to new experiences.Rather than defending against or distorting her own thoughts or feelings, theperson experiences congruence: Her sense of self is consistent with her emotions andexperiences (Farber, 2007). The actualizing tendency is fully operational, and shemakes choices that move her in the direction of greater growth and fulfillment ofpotential. Rogers (1957b, 1964) believed that the fully functioning person is likelyto be creative and spontaneous and to enjoy harmonious relationships with others.“I am quite aware that out of defen -siveness and inner fear individuals canand do behave in ways which areincredibly cruel, horribly destructive,immature, regressive, antisocial, andhurtful. Yet one of the most refreshingand invigorating parts of my experi -ence is to work with such individualsand to discover the strongly positivedirectional tendencies which exist inthem, as in all of us, at the deepestlevels.”CARL ROGERS (1961)Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective on PersonalityThe humanistic perspective has been criticized on two particular points. First, humanistictheories are hard to validate or test scientifically. Humanistic theories tend to bebased on philosophical assumptions or clinical observations rather than on empiricalresearch. For example, concepts like the self-concept, unconditional positive regard,and the actualizing tendency are very difficult to define or measure objectively.Second, many psychologists believe that humanistic psychology’s view of human natureis too optimistic. For example, if self-actualization is a universal human motive, whyare self-actualized people so hard to find? And, critics claim, humanistic psychologistshave minimized the darker, more destructive side of human nature. Can we really accountfor all the evil in the world by attributing it to a restrictive upbringing or society?The influence of humanistic psychology has waned since the 1960s and early1970s (Cain, 2003). Nevertheless, it has made lasting contributions, especially inthe realms of psychotherapy, counseling, education, and parenting (Farber, 2007).The humanistic perspective has also promoted the scientific study of such topics asthe healthy personality and creativity. Finally, the importance of subjective experienceand the self-concept has become widely accepted in different areas of psychology(Sheldon, 2008; Sleeth, 2007).The Social Cognitive Perspective on PersonalityKey Theme• The social cognitive perspective stresses conscious thought processes, selfregulation,and the importance of situational influences.social cognitive theoryAlbert Bandura’s theory of personality,which emphasizes the importance of observationallearning, conscious cognitiveprocesses, social experiences, self-efficacybeliefs, and reciprocal determinism.reciprocal determinismA model proposed by psychologist AlbertBandura that explains human functioningand personality as caused by the interactionof behavioral, cognitive, and environmentalfactors.self-efficacyThe beliefs that people have about theirability to meet the demands of a specificsituation; feelings of self-confidence orself-doubt.Key Questions• What is the principle of reciprocal determination?• What is the role of self-efficacy beliefs in personality?• What are key strengths and weaknesses of the social cognitive perspective?Have you ever noticed how different your behavior and sense of self can be in differentsituations? Consider this example: You feel pretty confident as you enter your Englishcomposition class. After all, you’re pulling an A, and your prof nods approvinglyevery time you participate in the class discussion, which you do frequently. In contrast,your college algebra class is a disaster. You’re worried about passing the course, andyou feel so shaky about your skills that you’re afraid to even ask a question, much lessparticipate in class. Even a casual observer would notice how differently you behave inthe two different situations—speaking freely and confidently in one class, staring atyour desk in hopes that your instructor won’t notice you in the other.