Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

284 CHAPTER 7 Thinking, Language, and IntelligenceFigure 7.4 Overcoming FunctionalFixedness Here’s a classic problem for youto solve. You have two candles, somethumbtacks, and a box of matches. Usingjust these objects, try to figure out how tomount the candles on a wall. (The solutionis on page 287.)Source: Adapted from Duncker (1945).Obstacles to Solving ProblemsThinking Outside the BoxWhen we view objects as functioning only in the usual or customary way, we’reengaging in a tendency called functional fixedness. Functional fixedness often preventsus from seeing the full range of ways in which an object can be used. To geta feel for how functional fixedness can interfere with your ability to find a solution,try the problem in Figure 7.4.Here’s an example of functional fixedness. When pilots fly through clouds, theywatch an instrument called an artificial horizon, which shows an outline of an airplaneagainst a horizontal line that represents the horizon. By watching the movement of theoutline, they can tell if the aircraft is tilting up or down, or banking to the left or right.When Don was first learning to fly, he was publicly chastised by a salty old flight instructorfor failing to wear a St. Christopher’s medal around his neck when flying. SinceSt. Christopher is the patron saint of travelers, Don assumed that the flight instructorwas a bit superstitious. Don’s functional fixedness kept him from thinking of any otherreason for a pilot to wear a St. Christopher’s medal. Finally, Don asked the instructor.It turned out that a St. Christopher’s medal or any other object on a chain can beused to create a makeshift artificial horizon if the flight instrument should fail. Yousimply drape the chain over the throttle stick. If the aircraft starts pointing down, themedal swings forward; if the aircraft starts pointing upward, the medal swings back.When the aircraft banks, the medal swings to one side or the other. This novel use ofan object on a chain could potentially help save the lives of the people in the plane.Another common obstacle to problem solving is mental set—the tendency topersist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past (Öllinger &others, 2008). Obviously, if a solution has worked in the past, there’s good reasonto consider using it again. However, if we approach a problem with a rigid mentalset, we may not see other possible solutions (Kershaw & Ohlsson, 2004).Ironically, mental set is sometimes most likely to block insight in areas in which youare already knowledgeable or well trained. Before you read any further, try solving thesimple arithmetic problems in Figure 7.5. If you’re having trouble coming up with theanswer, it’s probably because your existing training in solving arithmetic problems ispreventing you from seeing the equations from a different perspective than what youhave been taught (Knoblich & Öllinger, 2006; Öllinger & others, 2008).Mental sets can sometimes suggest a useful heuristic. But they can also preventus from coming up with new, and possibly more effective, solutions. If we try to beflexible in our thinking and overcome the tendency toward mental sets, we can oftenidentify simpler solutions to many common problems.Decision-Making StrategiesKey Theme• Different cognitive strategies are used when making decisions, dependingon the type and number of options available to us.Figure 7.5 Mental Set The equationsabove, expressed in Roman numerals, areobviously incorrect. Your task is to transformeach incorrect equation into a correctequation by moving ONE matchstick ineach equation. The matchstick can only bemoved once. Only Roman numerals andthe three arithmetic operators +, –, or =are allowed. Take your best shot at solvingthe equations before looking at the solutionson page 287. Remember, in theRoman numeral system, I = 1; II = 2; III = 3;IV = 4; V = 5.Key Questions• What are the single-feature model, the additive model, and the eliminationby aspects model of decision making?• Under what conditions is each strategy most appropriate?• How do we use the availability and representativeness heuristics to helpus estimate the likelihood of an event?Who hasn’t felt like flipping a coin when faced with an important or complicateddecision? Fortunately, most of the decisions we make in everyday life are relativelyminor. But every now and then we have to make a decision where much more is at