Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

Motivational Concepts and Theories321Incentive MotivationGoal Objects as MotivatorsBuilding on the base established by drive theories, incentive theories emerged in the1940s and 1950s. Incentive theories proposed that behavior is motivated by the“pull” of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition. It’s easy to think ofmany situations in which a particular goal, such as a promotion at work, can serve asan external incentive that helps activate particular behaviors.Incentive theories drew heavily from well-established learning principles, such asreinforcement, and the work of influential learning theorists, such as Pavlov, Watson,Skinner, and Tolman (see Chapter 5). Edward Tolman (1932) also stressed theimportance of cognitive factors in learning and motivation, especially the expectationthat a particular behavior will lead to a particular goal.When combined, drive and incentive theories account for a broad range of the“pushes” and “pulls” motivating many of our behaviors. But even in combination,drive and incentive explanations of motivation still had limitations. In some situations,such as playing a rapid-response video game, our behavior seems to be directedtoward increasing tension and physiological arousal. If you think about it, our friendRichard’s decision to take up hang gliding was not motivated by either an internal,biological drive or an external incentive.Arousal TheoryOptimal Stimulation as a MotivatorRacing your car along a barren stretch of highway, watching a suspenseful movie,shooting down the Super Slide at a water park—none of these activities seem to involvetension reduction, the satisfaction of some biological need, or the lure of somereward. Rather, performing the activity itself seems to motivate us. Why?Arousal theory is based on the observation that people experience both veryhigh levels of arousal and very low levels of arousal as being quite unpleasant. Whenarousal is too low, we experience boredom and become motivated to increasearousal by seeking out stimulating experiences (Berlyne, 1960, 1971). But whenarousal is too high, we seek to reduce arousal in a less stimulating environment.Thus, people are motivated to maintain anoptimal level of arousal, one that is neithertoo high nor too low (Hebb, 1955). Thisoptimal level of arousal varies from personto person, from time to time, and from onesituation to another.That the optimal level of arousal variesfrom person to person is especially evidentin people dubbed sensation seekers. Sensationseekers find the heightened arousal of novelexperiences very pleasurable. According topsychologist Marvin Zuckerman (1979,2007), people who rank high on the dimensionof sensation seeking have a need forvaried, complex, and unique sensory experiences.No doubt Don ranks high on this dimension,since he has tried skydiving, aerobaticflying, and white-water rafting. (Healso once ate a handful of biodegradablepacking peanuts, much to the horror of acollege secretary.) Although such experiencescan sometimes involve physical or socialrisks, sensation seekers aren’t necessarilydrawn to danger—but rather to the noveldrive theoriesThe view that behavior is motivated by thedesire to reduce internal tension caused byunmet biological needs.homeostasis(home-ee-oh-STAY-sis) The idea that the bodymonitors and maintains internal states, suchas body temperature and energy supplies,at relatively constant levels; in general, thetendency to reach or maintain equilibrium.driveA need or internal motivational state thatactivates behavior to reduce the need andrestore homeostasis.incentive theoriesThe view that behavior is motivated by thepull of external goals, such as rewards.arousal theoryThe view that people are motivated tomaintain a level of arousal that is optimal—neither too high nor too low.sensation seekingThe degree to which an individual is motivatedto experience high levels of sensoryand physical arousal associated with variedand novel activities.Ice-Climbing in Keene Valley, New YorkAptly called “extreme sports,” theyinclude such diverse activities as hanggliding, ice climbing, white-waterkayaking, bungee jumping, and parachutingfrom mountain cliffs and radiotowers. People who enjoy such high-riskactivities are usually sensation seekers.For them, the rush of adrenaline theyfeel when they push the outer limit is anexhilarating and rewarding experience.