Hockenbury Discovering Psychology 5th txtbk

Psychological Needs as Motivators341Table 8.2Maslow’s Characteristics of Self-Actualized PeopleRealism andacceptanceSpontaneityProblem centeringAutonomyContinued freshnessof appreciationPeak experiencesSource: Based on Maslow (1970).Self-actualized people have accurate perceptions of themselves,others, and external reality.Self-actualized people are spontaneous, natural, and open in theirbehavior and thoughts. However, they can easily conform toconventional rules and expectations when necessary.Self-actualized people focus on problems outside themselves. Theyoften dedicate themselves to a larger purpose in life.Although they accept and enjoy other people, self-actualizedindividuals have a strong need for privacy and independence.Self-actualized people continue to appreciate the simple pleasuresof life with awe and wonder.Self-actualized people commonly have peak experiences, ormoments of intense ecstasy, wonder, and awe during which theirsense of self is lost or transcended.(e.g., Fox, 1982; Neher, 1991; Wahba & Bridwell, 1976). Maslow’s concept of selfactualizationis very vague and almost impossible to define in a way that would allowit to be tested scientifically. And Maslow’s initial studies on self- actualizationwere based on limited samples with questionable reliability. For example, Maslow(1970) often relied on the life stories of acquaintances whose identities were neverrevealed. He also studied the biographies and autobiographies of famous historicalfigures he believed had achieved self-actualization, such as Eleanor Roosevelt,Abraham Lincoln, and Albert Einstein.There is a more important criticism. Despite the claim that self-actualization is aninborn motivational goal toward which all people supposedly strive, most people donot experience or achieve self-actualization. Maslow (1970) himself wrote that selfactualization“can seem like a miracle, so improbable an event as to be awe-inspiring.”Maslow explained this basic contradiction in a number of different ways. Forinstance, he suggested that few people experience the supportive environment thatis required to achieve self-actualization.Although interest in Maslow’s theory has waned, it continues to generate occasionalresearch (e.g., Koltko-Rivera, 2006; Pfaffenberger, 2007). But in general,Maslow’s notion that we must satisfy needs at one level before moving to the nextlevel has not stood up (Sheldon & others, 2001). Perhaps Maslow’s most importantcontribution was to encourage psychology to focus on the motivation anddevelopment of psychologically healthy people (King, 2008). In advocating thatidea, he helped focus attention on psychological needs as motivators.It is quite true that man lives by breadalone—where there is no bread. Butwhat happens to man’s desires whenthere is plenty of bread and when hisbelly is chronically filled? At onceother (and “higher”) needs emergeand these, rather than physiologicalhungers, dominate the organism. Andwhen these in turn are satisfied, againnew (and still “higher”) needs emerge,and so on. That is what we mean bysaying that the basic human needs areorganized into a hierarchy of relativeprepotency.—ABRAHAM MASLOW (1943)Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination TheoryUniversity of Rochester psychologists Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan (2000,2008a, 2008b) have developed self-determination theory, abbreviated SDT. Muchlike Maslow’s theory, SDT’s premise is that people are actively growth oriented andthat they move toward a unified sense of self and integration with others. To realizeoptimal psychological functioning and growth throughout the lifespan, Ryan andDeci contend that three innate and universal psychological needs must be satisfied:• Autonomy—the need to determine, control, and organize one’s own behaviorand goals so that they are in harmony with one’s own interests and values.• Competence—the need to learn and master appropriately challenging tasks.• Relatedness—the need to feel attached to others and experience a sense ofbelongingness, security, and intimacy.hierarchy of needsMaslow’s hierarchical division of motivationinto levels that progress from basicphysical needs to psychological needs toself-fulfillment needs.self-actualizationDefined by Maslow as a person’s “full useand exploitation of talents, capacities, andpotentialities.”self-determination theory (SDT)Edward Deci and Richard Ryan’s theory thatoptimal human functioning can occur only ifthe psychological needs for autonomy, competence,and relatedness are satisfied.