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This material is copyright - all rights reserved. Reproduced under licence from The Steel Construction Institute on 12/2/2007 To buy a hardcopy version of this document call 01344 872775 or go to http://shop.steelbiz.org/ Steel Designers' Manual - 6th Edition (2003) strength weight strength limited / / cost limited / / / / / / / / / / Chemical composition 223 ceromics (75 37) x wood / x oluminium titonium (433) / / corbon fibre (160, 31) ft steel 'oncrete x plostic x copper cost I I 6 8 10 weight Fig. 6.1 Strength/weight and cost/weight ratios for different materials normalized to steel (1,1) peratures up to about 300°C, there is a progressive loss of strength above this temperature so that in an intense fire, bare steel may lose the major part of its structural strength. Although the hot strength and creep strength of steels at high temperature can be improved by special chemical formulation, it is usually cheaper to provide fire protection for normal structural steels by protective cladding. 6.2 Chemical composition 6.2.1 General The key to understanding the effects of chemical composition and heat treatment on the metallurgy and properties of steels is to recognize that the properties depend upon the following factors: (1) microstructure (2) grain size (3) non-metallic inclusions (4) precipitates within grains or at grain boundaries (5) the presence of absorbed or dissolved gases.
This material is copyright - all rights reserved. Reproduced under licence from The Steel Construction Institute on 12/2/2007 To buy a hardcopy version of this document call 01344 872775 or go to http://shop.steelbiz.org/ Steel Designers' Manual - 6th Edition (2003) 224 Applied metallurgy of steel Steel is basically iron with the addition of small amounts of carbon up to a maximum of 1.67% by weight, and other elements added to provide particular mechanical properties. Above 1.67% carbon the material generally takes the form of cast iron. As the carbon level is increased, the effect is to raise the strength level, but reduce the ductility and make the material more sensitive to heat treatment. The cheapest and simplest form is therefore a plain carbon steel commonly supplied for the steel reinforcement in reinforced concrete structures, for wire ropes, for some general engineering applications in the form of bars or rods, and for some sheet/strip applications. However, plain carbon steels at medium to high carbon levels give rise to problems where subsequent fabrication/manufacturing takes place, particularly where welding is involved, and more versatility can be obtained by keeping carbon to a relatively low level and adding other elements in small amounts. When combined with appropriate heat treatments, addition of these other elements produces higher strength while retaining good ductility, fracture toughness, and weldability, or the development of improved hot strength, or improved corrosion-resistance. The retention of good fracture toughness with increased strength is particularly important for thick sections, and for service applications at low temperatures where brittle fracture may be a problem. Hot strength is important for service applications at high temperatures such as pressure vessels and piping in the power generation and chemical process plant industries. Corrosion-resistance is important for any structures exposed to the environment, particularly for structures immersed in sea water. Weathering grades of steel are designed to develop a tight adherent oxide layer which slows down and stifles continuing corrosion under normal atmospheric exposure of alternate wet and dry conditions. Stainless steels are designed to have a protective oxide surface layer which re-forms if any damage takes place to the surface, and these steels are therefore designed not to corrode under oxidizing conditions. Stainless steels find particular application in the chemical industry. 6.2.2 Added elements The addition of small amounts of carbon to iron increases the strength and the sensitivity to heat treatment (or hardenability, see later). Other elements which also affect strength and hardenability, although to a much lesser extent than carbon, are manganese, chromium, molybdenum, nickel and copper. Their effect is principally on the microstructure of the steel, enabling the required strength to be obtained for given heat treatment/manufacturing conditions, while keeping the carbon level very low. Refinement of the grain structure of steels leads to an increase in yield strength and improved fracture toughness and ductility at the same time, and this is therefore an important route for obtaining enhanced properties in steels. Although heat treatment and in particular cooling rate are key factors in obtaining grain refinement, the presence of one or more elements which promote grain refinement by aiding the nucleation of new grains during cooling is also extremely beneficial.
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